The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior

doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01

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The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior

Journal Article•DOI•

The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior

Edward L. Deci¹, Richard M. Ryan•Institutions (1)

University of Rochester¹

01 Jan 2000-Psychological Inquiry (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.)-Vol. 11, Iss: 4, pp 227-268

TL;DR: Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as mentioned in this paper maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being.

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Abstract: Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.

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Journal Article•DOI•

Enterprise Social Media (ESM) Use and Employee Belongingness in US Corporations

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Phillip M. Randall, Franklin M. Lartey, Tywanda D. Tate

29 Apr 2020

TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored social capital theory by investigating the relationship between enterprise social media use (ESM) as measured by an adapted instrument and employee belongingness, measured by the balanced measure of psychological needs (BMPN) scale of employees in USA, moderated by generational age groups.

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Abstract: This study explored social capital theory by investigating the relationship between enterprise social media use (ESM) as measured by an adapted instrument and employee belongingness as measured by the balanced measure of psychological needs (BMPN) scale of employees in USA, moderated by generational age groups. A survey of 155 employees from US corporations was conducted. The results support the theoretical model of social capital as well as three hypothesized relationships. While there was no significant relation between Social-related ESM use and employee belongingness, there was a statistically significant relationship between Work-related ESM use, age generation groups, and employee belongingness. Overall, Generation-X employees showed a higher belongingness score compared to Millennials, and even higher compared to Generation-Z employees. The results indicate that using an internal social media technology for work-related purposes can help employees feel that they belong and are a part of the social makeup of the organization. Work related social media use can also foster greater organizational social capital such as team building resulting in the achievement of organizational objectives and goals. These findings offer implications for research on social capital’s value as an asset for the organization as well as enterprise social media’s ongoing and ever-increasing value.

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9 citations

Cites background from "The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursui..."

...Relatedness refers to the need for the sense of belonging and being connected to other people [35]....
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Journal Article•DOI•

How engaging leaders foster employees' work engagement

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Vivi Gusrini Rahmadani, Wilmar B. Schaufeli, Jeroen Stouten

09 Sep 2020-Leadership & Organization Development Journal

TL;DR: In this article, the mediating role of job resources (JRs) and basic psychological need satisfaction at work was investigated, and the results showed that engaging leadership at baseline 2017 (T1) predicts T1-T2 increase in work engagement (WE) directly, as well as indirectly through T1 JRs, and T1 -T 2 increase in basic need satisfaction, showing the important role of EL for fostering WE through increasing JRs and satisfying basic psychological needs at work.

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Abstract: The current study investigates the mediating role of job resources (JRs) (i.e. person-–ob fit, value congruence, alignment, job control, use of skills, participation in decision-making, coworker support and performance feedback) and basic psychological need satisfaction at work (i.e. autonomy, relatedness, competence and meaningfulness) in the relationship between engaging leadership (EL) (i.e. inspiring, strengthening, empowering and connecting) and work engagement.,Structural equation analysis was used to test the mediation hypotheses, using a two-wave longitudinal design and an Indonesian sample of 412 employees from an agribusiness state-owned company.,The results show that EL at baseline 2017 (T1) predicts T1–T2 increase in work engagement (WE) directly, as well as indirectly through T1 JRs, and T1–T2 increase in basic psychological need satisfaction.,This research extends the job demands-resources (JD-R) model by showing the important role of ELfor fostering WE through increasing JRs and satisfying basic psychological needs at work.

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9 citations

Cites background or methods from "The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursui..."

...Basic psychological needs are defined as “those nutriments that must be procured by a living entity tomaintain its growth, integrity, and health” (Deci and Ryan, 2000, p. 326)....
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...In the current study, we use SDT(SDT; Deci and Ryan, 2000) to understand the underlying mechanism that might explain the relationship between EL and WE....
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...Basic needs and engaging leadership The concept of EL is firmly rooted in SDT Deci and Ryan (2000)....
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...Three innate psychological needs are postulated in SDT, the need for autonomy, relatedness and competence; these needs are considered crucial for individuals’ optimal and healthy functioning (Deci and Ryan, 2000)....
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...Building upon the JD-R model and SDT, this research confirms and extends the motivational process of the JD-R model in the Indonesian context by adding EL as a specific antecedent of WE rather than including it as one of the JRs. Previous studies showed that supervisory social support, which is included as one of the JRs, is positively related toWE (for instance, Sepp€al€a Structural relationships Unstandardized parameter estimates Standardized parameter estimates Unstandardized indirect effects Standardized indirect effects (B) (β) (B’) (β’) R2 EL_t1 → WE_t2 0.41* 0.19 JR_t1 → WE_t2 –0.14 (ns) –0.09 BNS_t2 → WE_t2 0.48*** 0.35 EL_t1 → BNS_t2 0.10 (ns) 0.06 JR_t1 → BNS_t2 0.28* 0.25 EL_t1 → JR_t1 0.89*** 0.64 0.41 EL_t1 → BNS_t2 → WE_t2 No mediation EL_t1 → JR_t1 → BNS_t2 0.25 0.16* 0.09 JR_t1 → BNS_t2 → WE_t2 0.14 0.09* 0.13 EL_t1 → JR_t1 → BNS_t2 → WE_t2 0.04 0.05* 0.15 Model fit indices χ2 130.82 Df 7 GFI, CFI, NFI, AGFI and TLI 0.92–0.96 SRMR 0.02 RMSEA 0.05 Note(s): EL_t1: engaging leadership time 1; JR_t1: job resources time 1; BNS_t2: change in basic need satisfaction time 2; WE_t2: change in work engagement time 2; χ2: chi-square; GFI: goodness of fit index; CFI: comparative fit index; NFI: normed fit index; AGFI: adjusted goodness of fit index; TLI: Tucker–Lewis index; SRMR: standardized root mean residual and RMSEA: root mean square error of approximation....
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Journal Article•DOI•

A qualitative study of motivations for meditation in anthroposophic practitioners

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Terje Sparby¹, Ulrich Ott¹•Institutions (1)

University of Giessen¹

13 Sep 2018-PLOS ONE

TL;DR: This study presents an overview of different forms of motivations found in contemporary Anthroposophic meditation practice, improving upon a scheme developed by Shapiro by including additional types of motivations and being able to differentiate between forms of motivation that are fundamentally different.

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Abstract: Research on meditation is advancing, but few studies about the motivations of meditators exist. Additionally, many forms and traditions of meditation have yet to be investigated. This study addresses both of these issues by presenting an overview of different forms of motivations found in contemporary Anthroposophic meditation practice. 30 Anthroposophic meditators were interviewed about their meditation experiences. The interviews were examined using thematic analysis. 14 data-driven themes were extracted and organized within a framework consisting of three superordinate theory-driven forms of motivation: External, internal and service. A developmental trajectory running from external and internal to service motivations is indicated. This approach improves upon a scheme developed by Shapiro by including additional types of motivations and being able to differentiate between forms of motivations that are fundamentally different: Self-related (heteronomous and autonomous) motivations and other-related motivations.

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9 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

How to increase affective organizational commitment among new French police officers. The role of trainers and organizational identification

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Stephan Chevalier¹, Isabelle Huart¹, Hélène Coillot¹, D. Odry², René Mokounkolo¹, Nicolas Gillet¹, Evelyne Fouquereau¹ - Show less +3 more•Institutions (2)

François Rabelais University¹, Ministry of Interior (Bahrain)²

01 Nov 2020-Police Practice and Research

TL;DR: In this paper, the influence of trainers on the affective organizational commitment of new police officers in France has been studied, focusing on the influence that trainers have on the employability of new officers.

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Abstract: This study concerns police socialization, focusing on the influence of trainers on the affective organizational commitment of new police officers in France. There has been little research on the ro...

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9 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Needs Satisfaction Effect on Exercise Emotional Response: A Serial Mediation Analysis with Motivational Regulations and Exercise Intensity

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Diogo S. Teixeira¹, António L. Palmeira², António L. Palmeira¹•Institutions (2)

Universidade Lusófona¹, University of Lisbon²

01 Dec 2016-Motriz-revista De Educacao Fisica

TL;DR: In this paper, the mediating effects of motivational regulations and intensity in the association between basic psychological needs satisfaction and emotional responses were analyzed in a cross-sectional study of 495 health club members (M = 40.50 years; SD = 13.54).

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Abstract: — Regarding psychological responses to exercise, this study aimed to analyze the mediating effects of motivational regulations and intensity in the association between basic psychological needs satisfaction and emotional responses. This was a cross-sectional study of 495 health club members ( M = 40.50 years; SD = 13.54); of these, 186 were women (37.6%) and 309 men (62.4%), with an average attendance of 2.61 sessions per week ( SD = 1.29). Self-determination theory motivational regulations and basic psychological needs (BPN), perceived exercise intensity, and emotional response were measured. Serial mediation procedures were followed to test the interactions of variables. Models with autonomous regulations predicted positive emotional responses. As for the negative emotional response, the models with external regulation presented the highest predictions for negative activation. Results indicate that BPN satisfaction is associated with better emotional response, partially explained by autonomous regulations and perceived exercise intensity. In externally regulated individuals, perceived exercise intensity appears to be important to sustain a better emotional response.Keywords: motivational regulation, basic psychological needs satisfaction, perceived exercise intensity, emotional response

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References

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Book•

Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control

[...]

Albert Bandura¹•Institutions (1)

Stanford University¹

01 Jan 1997

TL;DR: SelfSelf-Efficacy (SE) as discussed by the authors is a well-known concept in human behavior, which is defined as "belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments".

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Abstract: Albert Bandura and the Exercise of Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control Albert Bandura. New York: W. H. Freeman (www.whfreeman.com). 1997, 604 pp., $46.00 (hardcover). Enter the term "self-efficacy" in the on-line PSYCLIT database and you will find over 2500 articles, all of which stem from the seminal contributions of Albert Bandura. It is difficult to do justice to the immense importance of this research for our theories, our practice, and indeed for human welfare. Self-efficacy (SE) has proven to be a fruitful construct in spheres ranging from phobias (Bandura, Jeffery, & Gajdos, 1975) and depression (Holahan & Holahan, 1987) to career choice behavior (Betz & Hackett, 1986) and managerial functioning (Jenkins, 1994). Bandura's Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control is the best attempt so far at organizing, summarizing, and distilling meaning from this vast and diverse literature. Self-Efficacy may prove to be Bandura's magnum opus. Dr. Bandura has done an impressive job of summarizing over 1800 studies and papers, integrating these results into a coherent framework, and detailing implications for theory and practice. While incorporating prior works such as Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) and "Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency" (Bandura, 1982), Self-Efficacy extends these works by describing results of diverse new research, clarifying and extending social cognitive theory, and fleshing out implications of the theory for groups, organizations, political bodies, and societies. Along the way, Dr. Bandura masterfully contrasts social cognitive theory with many other theories of human behavior and helps chart a course for future research. Throughout, B andura' s clear, firm, and self-confident writing serves as the perfect vehicle for the theory he espouses. Self-Efficacy begins with the most detailed and clear explication of social cognitive theory that I have yet seen, and proceeds to delineate the nature and sources of SE, the well-known processes via which SE mediates human behavior, and the development of SE over the life span. After laying this theoretical groundwork, subsequent chapters delineate the relevance of SE to human endeavor in a variety of specific content areas including cognitive and intellectual functioning; health; clinical problems including anxiety, phobias, depression, eating disorders, alcohol problems, and drug abuse; athletics and exercise activity; organizations; politics; and societal change. In Bandura's words, "Perceived self-efficacy refers to beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments" (p. 3). People's SE beliefs have a greater effect on their motivation, emotions, and actions than what is objectively true (e.g., actual skill level). Therefore, SE beliefs are immensely important in choice of behaviors (including occupations, social relationships, and a host of day-to-day behaviors), effort expenditure, perseverance in pursuit of goals, resilience to setbacks and problems, stress level and affect, and indeed in our ways of thinking about ourselves and others. Bandura affirms many times that humans are proactive and free as well as determined: They are "at least partial architects of their own destinies" (p. 8). Because SE beliefs powerfully affect human behaviors, they are a key factor in human purposive activity or agency; that is, in human freedom. Because humans shape their environment even as they are shaped by it, SE beliefs are also pivotal in the construction of our social and physical environments. Bandura details over two decades of research confirming that SE is modifiable via mastery experiences, vicarious learning, verbal persuasion, and interpretation of physiological states, and that modified SE strongly and consistently predicts outcomes. SE beliefs, then, are central to human self-determination. STRENGTHS One major strength of Self-Efficacy is Bandura's ability to deftly dance from forest to trees and back again to forest, using specific, human examples and concrete situations to highlight his major theoretical premises, to which he then returns. …

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46,839 citations

"The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursui..." refers background or result in this paper

...As for autonomy, Bandura (1989) stated that autonomy would be evident only if “humans serve as entirely independent agents of their own actions” (p....
[...]
...Social-learning theories, of which Bandura’s (1996) self-efficacy theory is currently the most popular, are examples of the so-called standard social science model (e.g., Tooby & Cosmides, 1992), for they view people’s behavioral repertoires and self-concepts as being largely acquired from the social world.Self-efficacy theory has focused specifically on the extent to which people feel capable of engaging in behaviors that will lead to desired outcomes (Bandura, 1977). Given their capacity to alter their environment, establish incentives, and create cognitive self-inducements, people can, Bandura (1989) argued, motivate themselves and be agentic....
[...]
...As for autonomy, Bandura (1989) stated that autonomy would be evident only if “humans serve as entirely independent agents of their own actions” (p. 1175), a characterization that allowed him to dismiss the concept out of hand. Clearly, this characterization bears no relation to the concept of autonomy contained in SDT and is inconsistent with the way the concept is treated by modern philosophers (e.g., Dworkin, 1988; Ricoeur, 1966). By using this characterization, self-efficacy theory has avoided dealing with the important human issue of autonomy. By contrast, other perceived control theories addressed the concept of autonomy and acknowledged that it cannot be reduced to perceived control (e.g., Little, Hawley, Henrich, & Marsland, in press; E. A. Skinner, 1995). In terms of our three needs, self-efficacy theory is concerned almost exclusively with competence, but the theory explicitly shuns White’s (1959) postulate of an innate effectance motivation....
[...]
...Although many empirically based theories treat motivation as a unitary concept, variable only in amount rather than kind (e.g., Bandura, 1996; Locke & Latham, 1990), our approach focuses on the kind of motivation or regulation—specifically, the degree to which it is self-determined versus…...
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...Social-learning theories, of which Bandura’s (1996) self-efficacy theory is currently the most popular, are examples of the so-called standard social science model (e....
[...]

Journal Article•DOI•

Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.

[...]

Albert Bandura¹•Institutions (1)

Stanford University¹

01 Mar 1977-Psychological Review

TL;DR: An integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment is presented and findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive mode of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes.

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Abstract: The present article presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from four principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. The more dependable the experiential sources, the greater are the changes in perceived selfefficacy. A number of factors are identified as influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arising from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. Possible directions for further research are discussed.

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38,007 citations

"The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursui..." refers background or result in this paper

...As for autonomy, Bandura (1989) stated that autonomy would be evident only if “humans serve as entirely independent agents of their own actions” (p....
[...]
...Social-learning theories, of which Bandura’s (1996) self-efficacy theory is currently the most popular, are examples of the so-called standard social science model (e.g., Tooby & Cosmides, 1992), for they view people’s behavioral repertoires and self-concepts as being largely acquired from the social world.Self-efficacy theory has focused specifically on the extent to which people feel capable of engaging in behaviors that will lead to desired outcomes (Bandura, 1977). Given their capacity to alter their environment, establish incentives, and create cognitive self-inducements, people can, Bandura (1989) argued, motivate themselves and be agentic....
[...]
...As for autonomy, Bandura (1989) stated that autonomy would be evident only if “humans serve as entirely independent agents of their own actions” (p. 1175), a characterization that allowed him to dismiss the concept out of hand. Clearly, this characterization bears no relation to the concept of autonomy contained in SDT and is inconsistent with the way the concept is treated by modern philosophers (e.g., Dworkin, 1988; Ricoeur, 1966). By using this characterization, self-efficacy theory has avoided dealing with the important human issue of autonomy. By contrast, other perceived control theories addressed the concept of autonomy and acknowledged that it cannot be reduced to perceived control (e.g., Little, Hawley, Henrich, & Marsland, in press; E. A. Skinner, 1995). In terms of our three needs, self-efficacy theory is concerned almost exclusively with competence, but the theory explicitly shuns White’s (1959) postulate of an innate effectance motivation....
[...]
...Social-learning theories, of which Bandura’s (1996) self-efficacy theory is currently the most popular, are examples of the so-called standard social science model (e....
[...]
...Self-efficacy theory has focused specifically on the extent to which people feel capable of engaging in behaviors that will lead to desired outcomes (Bandura, 1977)....
[...]

Journal Article•DOI•

Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being.

[...]

Richard M. Ryan¹, Edward L. Deci•Institutions (1)

University of Rochester¹

01 Jan 2000-American Psychologist

TL;DR: Research guided by self-determination theory has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development, leading to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

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Abstract: Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theo~ has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatednesswhich when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy. T he fullest representations of humanity show people to be curious, vital, and self-motivated. At their best, they are agentic and inspired, striving to learn; extend themselves; master new skills; and apply their talents responsibly. That most people show considerable effort, agency, and commitment in their lives appears, in fact, to be more normative than exceptional, suggesting some very positive and persistent features of human nature. Yet, it is also clear that the human spirit can be diminished or crushed and that individuals sometimes reject growth and responsibility. Regardless of social strata or cultural origin, examples of both children and adults who are apathetic, alienated, and irresponsible are abundant. Such non-optimal human functioning can be observed not only in our psychological clinics but also among the millions who, for hours a day, sit passively before their televisions, stare blankly from the back of their classrooms, or wait listlessly for the weekend as they go about their jobs. The persistent, proactive, and positive tendencies of human nature are clearly not invariantly apparent. The fact that human nature, phenotypically expressed, can be either active or passive, constructive or indolent, suggests more than mere dispositional differences and is a function of more than just biological endowments. It also bespeaks a wide range of reactions to social environments that is worthy of our most intense scientific investigation. Specifically, social contexts catalyze both within- and between-person differences in motivation and personal growth, resulting in people being more self-motivated, energized, and integrated in some situations, domains, and cultures than in others. Research on the conditions that foster versus undermine positive human potentials has both theoretical import and practical significance because it can contribute not only to formal knowledge of the causes of human behavior but also to the design of social environments that optimize people's development, performance, and well-being. Research guided by self-determination theory (SDT) has had an ongoing concern with precisely these

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29,115 citations

"The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursui..." refers background in this paper

...Summary and Integration Self-determination theory is concerned primarily with explicating the psychological processes that promote optimal functioning and health (Ryan & Deci, 2000)....
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...The dominance of behavior by unintegrated forces, such as external coercions and seductive rewards can thus preclude holistic processing (Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) and self-coherence (Ryan & Deci, 2000)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.

[...]

Julian B. Rotter¹•Institutions (1)

University of Connecticut¹

01 Jan 1966-The Psychological Monographs

TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of reward or reinforcement on preceding behavior depend in part on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent on his own behavior or independent of it, and individuals may also differ in generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.

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Abstract: The effects of reward or reinforcement on preceding behavior depend in part on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent on his own behavior or independent of it. Acquisition and performance differ in situations perceived as determined by skill versus chance. Persons may also differ in generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. This report summarizes several experiments which define group differences in behavior when Ss perceive reinforcement as contingent on their behavior versus chance or experimenter control. The report also describes the development of tests of individual differences in a generalized belief in internal-external control and provides reliability, discriminant validity and normative data for 1 test, along with a description of the results of several studies of construct validity.

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21,451 citations

Book•

Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior

[...]

Edward L. Deci, Richard M. Ryan

01 Aug 1975

TL;DR: This chapter discusses the development of Causality Orientations Theory, a theory of personality Influences on Motivation, and its application in information-Processing Theories.

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Abstract: I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.

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21,337 citations

"The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursui..." refers background or methods or result in this paper

...Like these other theories, self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1980, 1985b, 1991) has differentiated the concept of goal-directed behavior, yet it has taken a very different approach....
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...In SDT, we refer to these ascausality orientations(Deci & Ryan, 1985a) at the broadest level of generality, and asregulatory styles(Ryan & Connell, 1989) at a more domain-specific level of generality (see also Vallerand, 1997)....
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...Thus, it appears that the optimal circumstances for intrinsic motivation are those that allow satisfaction of the needs for autonomy and competence, circumstances that we labelinformational (Deci & Ryan, 1980, 1985b)....
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...Our research (Deci & Ryan, 1985a) on causality orientations also showed that the impersonal orientation was associated with an external locus of control (i.e., the belief that one cannot control outcomes) and with self-derogation and depression, implying a negative relation to general well-being....
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...In SDT, external regulation is considered controlling, and externally regulated behaviors are predicted to be contingency dependent in that they show poor maintenance and transfer once contingencies are withdrawn (Deci & Ryan, 1985b)....
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