The Widening Racial Gap in American Higher Education.
01 Jun 1984-Journal of Black Studies (Sage PublicationsSage CA: Thousand Oaks, CA)-Vol. 14, Iss: 4, pp 457-476
TL;DR: The attainment of education for blacks in the United States has inauspicious origins in the early history of this country when enslaved Africans were forbidden by law to receive educational instruction as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The attainment of education for blacks in the United States has inauspicious origins in the early history of this country when enslaved Africans were forbidden by law to receive educational instruction. Although some masters allowed their slaves to learn to read and write, the vast majority of blacks were illiterate, a condition that continued through the nineteenth century. Emancipation resulted in the migration of many blacks to the North and black progress occurred in education as well as a number of other areas such as health and employment (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1979). The Bureau of the Census (1979) reports that this progress has continued through the twentieth century; however, the decade of the 1960s marked the most significant gains for
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TL;DR: For example, this paper found that retention of students of color suggests possible areas of intervention to improve academic success, such as diversity, diversity, and inclusion. But they did not identify any specific intervention strategies.
Abstract: Research on retention of students of color suggests possible areas of intervention to improve academic success.
236 citations
Cites background from "The Widening Racial Gap in American..."
...Higher education researchers have shown the enduring effects of SES on college student outcomes (Hearn, 1991). A student’s SES is a significant predictor of the type of higher education institution he or she can attend (Pascarella, Smart, and Smylie, 1992). Cabrera, Stampen, and Hansen (1990) addressed the issue of ability to pay on college persistence by expanding Tinto’s model by “explicating the potential moderating effects of ability to pay on college persistence” (p....
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...There is a gap between ethnic minority students and ethnic majority students in the attainment of higher education degrees (Allen, 1992; DesJardins, Ahlburg, and McCall, 2002; Hatch and Mommsen, 1984; Mehan, Hubbard, and Villanueva, 1994; Myers, 2003; Pathways to College Network, 2003)....
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Journal Article•
TL;DR: The authors examines the history, present, and future of Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) and considers new challenges that face these institutions, addressing how HBCUs are positioned to move forward with their important mission of educating the Black community.
Abstract: This article examines the history, present, and future of historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs). We begin with a brief review of the existing literature on HBCUs, considering common themes and how these institutions changed over time within a broader sociohistorical landscape. In addition to historical information, we use a national database to illuminate trends and shifts in the students choosing to attend, and being served by, these institutions. We close by considering new challenges that face these institutions, addressing how HBCUs are positioned to move forward with their important mission of educating the Black community. "Education is thus simply the means by which a society prepares, in its children, the essential conditions of its own existence." (Emile Durkheim, 1972, p. 203) "Education will set this tangle straight." (W. E. B. Du Bois, 1903/1989, p. 76) "When you control a man's thinking, you do not have to worry about his actions." Carter G. Woodson (1933, p. xiii) Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) have been at the center of the Black struggle for equality and dignity. The American ethos idealizes education and personal achievement over birthright as the sole basis for one's place in society-except for African Americans. We have always been judged by the color of our skin, denied equal educational opportunity, and told the educational gap between Blacks and Whites was the reason for our subjugated status in society. It is therefore not surprising that education has been a key site for Black struggle. For African Americans, education embodies not only a means toward gaining equality and progress, but the very essence of citizenship and pereonhood. We have pursued higher education with faith, perseverance and desperation, absolutely convinced that the keys to our deliverance from racial oppression lay hidden in the pages of books we were forbidden to read. As the opening quotes attest, HBCUs play important roles in the perpetuation of Black culture, the improvement of Black community life, and the preparation of the next generation of the Black leadership. Durkheim's quote reminds us that above all, education is culturally specific; education is rooted in and reflects the conditions, worldview and purposes of its parent society. In this respect, HBCUs have been profoundly shaped by the circumstances (historical, economic, political, and cultural) that define Black lives and communities in America. Du Bois's quote highlights the mandate for these institutions to engage the world, improve the circumstances of Black people and challenge the nation to realize its highest ideals. Finally, the quote from Woodson emphasizes the transformative power of education and the responsibility of HBCUs to empower individuals to change lives, their communities, and society. This has been the daunting charge to this unique group of institutions of higher learning; they have been called to preserve a culture, prosper a community, equip a new generation of leaders, and model what is best about America. The dawning of the 21st century is an appropriate moment to consider the trends, prospects, and challenges of HBCUs. In this article, we reassess the past, present, and future role of HBCUs while advocating the need for a perspective that considers how they function as institutions within a social system characterized by multiple forms of oppression. Specifically, we attempt an analysis of HBCUs that stresses the frequent, systemic interactions among race, gender, and class in the historical and contemporary eras. We close by considering new challenges that face these institutions and addressing how HBCUs are positioned to go forward with their important mission of educating the Black community with the goal to change American society for the better. THE PROMISE OF BROWN The 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) was one of the most far-reaching in American history. …
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TL;DR: The transition from high school to college has been extensively studied by higher education researchers as mentioned in this paper, focusing primarily on inequities in college participation and completion, the relative importance of high school preparation, and the utility of financial aid in promoting enrollment.
Abstract: Background: Higher education researchers have much to say about the transition to college. This field focuses primarily on inequities in college participation and completion, the relative importance of high school preparation, and the utility of financial aid in promoting enrollment. This literature’s strongest conceptual emphasis is on theoretical models of student retention. Less is known about other facets of the transition to college, including different postsecondary pathways and college outcomes. Purpose: This paper describes the major findings of research on the transition to college contributed by higher education, and how further research might be improved. The specific areas covered are college preparation, college access, persistence, and college outcomes. The reviewed literature covered extant research on the transition to college as conducted by higher education researchers. Research Design: This essay is an analysis of extant research on the college transition in the field of higher education Conclusions/Recommendations: This review highlights the field’s major shortcoming as undertaking insufficiently rigorous, empirical testing of theories on the transition to college. Existing research on postsecondary pathways is often compromised by data or methodological limitations, failure to be critical in attributing causality, and not differentiating effects occurring at different measurement levels (i.e., individual vs. institution).
123 citations
Cites background from "The Widening Racial Gap in American..."
...On average, Black and Hispanic students are more likely than White and Asian students to depart college prior to earning a degree (Allen, 1992; Cabrera et al., 2003; Ganderton & Santos, 1995; Hatch & Mommsen, 1984; Myers, 2003; Nora, Kraemer, & Itzen, 1997; Thomas, 1992)....
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01 Apr 1998
TL;DR: The authors examined the college enrollment decisions of Black and Latino students, focusing on factors that influenced their decision to attend college, and found that Black students who enrolled in a four-year college were more likely to: be female (62 percent), have come from upper-middle-class backgrounds, have parents with some college education, have been placed in a college prep program in high school, and fall in the third quartile of standardized tests than their peers.
Abstract: This study examined the college enrollment decisions of Black and Latino students, focusing on factors that influenced their decision to attend college. Data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988-1994 were used, namely a sample of 11,879 seniors who completed high school in 1992, including 1,181 Blacks and 1,505 Latinos. The study found that Black students who enrolled in a four-year college were more likely to: be female (62 percent), have come from upper-middle-class backgrounds (36 percent), have parents with some college education (52 percent), have been placed in a college prep program in high school (62 percent), and fall in the third quartile of standardized tests (33 percent), than their peers. Unlike Blacks, Latinos who enrolled in a four-year college were slightly more likely to be male (53 percent) and to be from low-income backgrounds (30 percent), and were about equally as likely to have parents with educational levels no higher than high school or some college (38 percent and 37 percent) and to fall into the two highest test quartiles (34 percent and 33 percent respectively). High school preparation and the availability of financial aid also had a significant influence on the college enrollment decisions of both groups. An appendix describes the operationalization of the variables.(Contains 59 references.) (MDM) ***.* *i+ ** *************************************************************** 'Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ******************************************************************************** BLACK AND LATINO COLLEGE ENROLLMENT: Effects of Background, High School Preparation, Family and Peer Influence and Financial Aid
15 citations
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16 Nov 1972
TL;DR: Most Americans say they believe in equality. But when pressed to explain what they mean by this, their definitions are usually full of contradictions as mentioned in this paper. But most Americans also believe that some people are more competent than others, and that this will always be so, no matter how much we reform society.
Abstract: Most Americans say they believe in equality. But when pressed to explain what they mean by this, their definitions are usually full of contradictions. Many will say, like the Founding Fathers, that “all men are created equal.” Many will also say that all men are equal “before God,” and that they are, or at least ought to be, equal in the eyes of the law. But most Americans also believe that some people are more competent than others, and that this will always be so, no matter how much we reform society. Many also believe that competence should be rewarded by success, while incompetence should be punished by failure. They have no commitment to ensuring that everyone’s job is equally desirable, that everyone exercises the same amount of political power, or that everyone receives the same income.
2,315 citations
Journal Article•
878 citations
TL;DR: Among cohorts of U.S. men born during the first half of the twentieth century, as the length of schooling has increased, its variability has decreased and schooling has become more equally distributed.
Abstract: Among cohorts of U.S. men born during the first half of the twentieth century, as the length of schooling has increased, its variability has decreased and schooling has become more equally distributed. Intergenerational differences in schooling are larger than three years in some birth cohorts, but these differences may be declining, and the period of rapid increase in levels of schooling appears to be ending. The disadvantages in schooling associated with farm background, broken families, Southern birth, black skin, and Spanish origin appear to be declining, but those associated with poorly educated or low status fathers and with large families have persisted. Family origins consistently explain at least 55 percent of the variance in schooling, and perhaps as much as 70 percent. Since the end of World War II schooling of parents has continued to increase, and this implies continuing demand for increased schooling in future years.
241 citations
TL;DR: The authors showed that even when controlling for ability, average annual earnings of college graduates are considerably higher than those who obtained less post-high school education, and these earning differentials doubtless will increase over the years as those in the professions and business enter the more productive phases of their careers.
Abstract: IGHER education in American society gains only a part of its significance from the personal satisfactions and self-realization that come from general learning and the mastery of high level skills. More importantly, higher education confers increased chances for income, power, and prestige on people who are fortunate enough to obtain it.' In modern technological societies the allocation of social position is increasingly dependent on higher education. Entrance into an ever enlarging range of valued occupations is restricted to those whose educational attainments beyond secondary school are presumed to have given them the habits of thought, attitudes, and special skills that these occupations require (Sorokin, 1927:169-172, 187-193; Lenski, 1966:389-395; Blau and Duncan, 1967: 401-441; Miller and Roby, 1970:119-141; Hauser, 1970). It has long been accepted that training for the higher professions should be an almost exclusive monopoly of colleges and universities. More recently this near monopoly has been extended to include many subprofessional and technical occupations as well. Even the training required for the skilled blue-collar and lower level whitecollar occupations-which formerly was acquired on the job, through apprenticeships, or in vocational curricula in high schoolshas increasingly been shifted to post-secondary institutions. Recently there has been a good deal of criticism of the overemphasis on credentialism and the certification role that colleges and other educational institutions perform (Miller and Reissman, 1969; Berg, 1970; Newman et al., 1971:38-43). This criticism is particularly persuasive whenever it can be shown that the educational requirements for entry into an occupation have little bearing on the activities of that occupation. It is especially unfortunate that when such requirements are artificially high, many otherwise qualified persons from disadvantaged * Presidential Address, 66th Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, August 30, 1971, Denver, Colorado. The research reported herein was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health, U.S. Public Health Service (M-62 75) and the Social and Rehabilitation Service, Social Security Administration (CRD-3 14). I wish especially to thank Robert M. Hauser for his critical comments and suggestions and for his contribution to the analytical work reported here. David Mechanic and Bryant E. Kearl made valuable suggestions for the revision of an earlier draft of this paper. I wish also to acknowledge the contributions of my professional associates on this project over the years: Archibald 0. Haller, Kenneth G. Lutterman, Vimal P. Shah, Janet A. Fisher, Ronald M. Pavalko, Robert M. Hauser, J. Michael Armer, Alan M. Orenstein, Eldon L. Wegner, Alejandro Portes, George W. Ohlendorf, Herschel Shosteck, Victor Jesudason, Dorothy M. Ellegaard, and Ruth M. Gasson. 1 There is a vast literature on the economic benefits of education which shows that those with advanced education enjoy much higher annual and lifetime earnings than those with lesser education. See especially Schultz (1963), Morgan and David (1963), Becker (1964), Innes et al. (1965), Weisbrod and Karpoff (1968), and Bowman (1971). Our own unpublished results indicate that, even when we control for ability, average annual earnings of college graduates are considerably higher than the earnings of those who obtained less posthigh school education. These results are based on 1967 data, and these earning differentials doubtless will increase over the years as those in the professions and business enter the more productive phases of their careers.
219 citations