THE YARKOVSKY AND YORP EFFECTS: Implications for Asteroid Dynamics
28 Apr 2006-Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences (Annual Reviews)-Vol. 34, Iss: 1, pp 157-191
TL;DR: The Yarkovsky and YORP effects are thermal radiation forces and torques that cause small objects to undergo semimajor axis drift and spin vector modifications, respectively, as a function of their spin, orbit, and material properties as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The Yarkovsky and YORP (Yarkovsky-O’Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack) effects are thermal radiation forces and torques that cause small objects to undergo semimajor axis drift and spin vector modifications, respectively, as a function of their spin, orbit, and material properties. These mechanisms help to (a) deliver asteroids (and meteoroids) with diameter D < 40 km from their source locations in the main belt to chaotic resonance zones capable of transporting this material to Earth-crossing orbits; (b) disperse asteroid families, with drifting bodies jumping or becoming trapped in mean-motion and secular resonances within the main belt; (c) modify the rotation rates and obliquities of D < 40 km asteroids; and (d ) allow asteroids to enter into spin-orbit resonances, which affect the evolution of their spin vectors and feedback into the Yarkovsky-driven semimajor axis evolution. Accordingly, we suggest that nongravitational forces should now be considered as important as collisions and gravitational perturbations to our overall understanding of asteroid evolution.
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01 May 2011TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present an overview of the solar system and its evolution, including the formation and evolution of stars, asteroids, and free-floating planets, as well as their internal and external structures.
Abstract: 1. Introduction 2. Radial velocities 3. Astrometry 4. Timing 5. Microlensing 6. Transits 7. Imaging 8. Host stars 9. Brown dwarfs and free-floating planets 10. Formation and evolution 11. Interiors and atmospheres 12. The Solar System Appendixes References Index.
527 citations
California Institute of Technology1, Johns Hopkins University2, University of Arizona3, Harvard University4, University of Virginia5, University of Hawaii6, Monterey Institute for Research in Astronomy7, University of California, Los Angeles8, Dartmouth College9, Notre Dame High School10, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach11, University of Maryland, College Park12
TL;DR: The first look at the Main Belt asteroids in the WISE data, and only represents the preliminary, observed raw size and albedo distributions for the populations considered, are presented in this paper.
Abstract: We present initial results from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), a four-band all-sky thermal infrared survey that produces data well suited for measuring the physical properties of asteroids, and the NEOWISE enhancement to the WISE mission allowing for detailed study of solar system objects. Using a NEATM thermal model fitting routine, we compute diameters for over 100,000 Main Belt asteroids from their IR thermal flux, with errors better than 10%. We then incorporate literature values of visible measurements (in the form of the H absolute magnitude) to determine albedos. Using these data we investigate the albedo and diameter distributions of the Main Belt. As observed previously, we find a change in the average albedo when comparing the inner, middle, and outer portions of the Main Belt. We also confirm that the albedo distribution of each region is strongly bimodal. We observe groupings of objects with similar albedos in regions of the Main Belt associated with dynamical breakup families. Asteroid families typically show a characteristic albedo for all members, but there are notable exceptions to this. This paper is the first look at the Main Belt asteroids in the WISE data, and only represents the preliminary, observed raw size, and albedo distributions for the populations considered. These distributions are subject to survey biases inherent to the NEOWISE data set and cannot yet be interpreted as describing the true populations; the debiased size and albedo distributions will be the subject of the next paper in this series.
448 citations
University of Arizona1, Goddard Space Flight Center2, Lockheed Martin Corporation3, University of Maryland, College Park4, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory5, Massachusetts Institute of Technology6, Southwest Research Institute7, California Institute of Technology8, Arizona State University9, Ithaca College10, Rowan University11, York University12, University of Tennessee13, Smithsonian Institution14, University of Colorado Boulder15, Ames Research Center16
TL;DR: The OSIRIS-REx spacecraft departed for near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu via an United Launch Alliance Atlas V 411 evolved expendable launch vehicle at 7:05 p.m. EDT on September 8, 2016, on a seven-year journey to return samples from Bennu as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: In May of 2011, NASA selected the Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security–Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) asteroid sample return mission as the third mission in the New Frontiers program. The other two New Frontiers missions are New Horizons, which explored Pluto during a flyby in July 2015 and is on its way for a flyby of Kuiper Belt object 2014 MU69 on January 1, 2019, and Juno, an orbiting mission that is studying the origin, evolution, and internal structure of Jupiter. The spacecraft departed for near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu aboard an United Launch Alliance Atlas V 411 evolved expendable launch vehicle at 7:05 p.m. EDT on September 8, 2016, on a seven-year journey to return samples from Bennu. The spacecraft is on an outbound-cruise trajectory that will result in a rendezvous with Bennu in November 2018. The science instruments on the spacecraft will survey Bennu to measure its physical, geological, and chemical properties, and the team will use these data to select a site on the surface to collect at least 60 g of asteroid regolith. The team will also analyze the remote-sensing data to perform a detailed study of the sample site for context, assess Bennu’s resource potential, refine estimates of its impact probability with Earth, and provide ground-truth data for the extensive astronomical data set collected on this asteroid. The spacecraft will leave Bennu in 2021 and return the sample to the Utah Test and Training Range (UTTR) on September 24, 2023.
440 citations
TL;DR: The asteroids in the main asteroid belt have been discovered to be more compositionally diverse with size and distance from the Sun than had previously been known, implying substantial mixing through processes such as planetary migration and the subsequent dynamical processes.
Abstract: Advances in the discovery and characterization of asteroids over the past decade have revealed an unanticipated underlying structure that points to a dramatic early history of the inner Solar System. The asteroids in the main asteroid belt have been discovered to be more compositionally diverse with size and distance from the Sun than had previously been known. This implies substantial mixing through processes such as planetary migration and the subsequent dynamical processes.
419 citations
TL;DR: It is reported that the Late Heavy Bombardment lasted much longer than previously thought, with most late impactors coming from the E belt, an extended and now largely extinct portion of the asteroid belt between 1.7 and 2.1 astronomical units from Earth.
Abstract: The Late Heavy Bombardment lasted much longer than previously thought, up to 1.7 billion years ago on Earth, with impacts on the Moon and Earth coming mostly from the E-belt-survivor Hungaria asteroids. The Late Heavy Bombardment was a period of time, generally put at about 4.1 billion to 3.8 billion years ago, when the inner planets of the Solar System were subjected to a high-frequency barrage of asteroids. This left its mark on the Moon, but on Earth the craters quickly disappeared owing to tectonic processes and erosion. In the first of two papers on the bombardment, Brandon Johnson and Jay Melosh determine the properties of the asteroids by looking at spherule beds: layers of debris ejected during the impacts. The thickness of spherule layers is expected to vary according to the size of the impactor and the speed at which it hit Earth. This historical record of impacts indicates that the number of projectiles colliding with Earth was substantially higher 3.5 billion years ago than it is today, with a gradual decline in the number of strikes after the Late Heavy Bombardment. Bottke et al. modelled the evolution of an asteroid belt that extended farther towards Mars than the present one. They find that most of the impactors traced by the spherule beds probably originated in this 'E-belt', which was disrupted during migrations of some of the giant planets. The barrage of comets and asteroids that produced many young lunar basins (craters over 300 kilometres in diameter) has frequently been called the Late Heavy Bombardment1 (LHB). Many assume the LHB ended about 3.7 to 3.8 billion years (Gyr) ago with the formation of Orientale basin2,3. Evidence for LHB-sized blasts on Earth, however, extend into the Archaean and early Proterozoic eons, in the form of impact spherule beds: globally distributed ejecta layers created by Chicxulub-sized or larger cratering events4. At least seven spherule beds have been found that formed between 3.23 and 3.47 Gyr ago, four between 2.49 and 2.63 Gyr ago, and one between 1.7 and 2.1 Gyr ago5,6,7,8,9. Here we report that the LHB lasted much longer than previously thought, with most late impactors coming from the E belt, an extended and now largely extinct portion of the asteroid belt between 1.7 and 2.1 astronomical units from Earth. This region was destabilized by late giant planet migration10,11,12,13. E-belt survivors now make up the high-inclination Hungaria asteroids14,15. Scaling from the observed Hungaria asteroids, we find that E-belt projectiles made about ten lunar basins between 3.7 and 4.1 Gyr ago. They also produced about 15 terrestrial basins between 2.5 and 3.7 Gyr ago, as well as around 70 and four Chicxulub-sized or larger craters on the Earth and Moon, respectively, between 1.7 and 3.7 Gyr ago. These rates reproduce impact spherule bed and lunar crater constraints.
356 citations
References
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TL;DR: In this paper, an expression for the effects of radiation pressure and Poynting-Robertson drag on small, spherical particles using the energy and momentum transformation laws of special relativity is derived.
1,419 citations
"THE YARKOVSKY AND YORP EFFECTS: Imp..." refers background in this paper
...…effects was pursued in Russia by Radzievskii (1952, 1954) and Katasev & Kulikova (1980); in the United States by Paddack (1969, 1973), Paddack & Rhee (1975), Peterson (1976), O’Keefe (1976), Slabinski (1977), Dohnanyi (1978), and Burns et al. (1979); and in Australia by Olsson-Steel (1986, 1987)....
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors used a smooth particle hydrodynamics method to simulate colliding rocky and icy bodies from centimeter scale to hundreds of kilometers in diameter in an effort to define self-consistently the threshold for catastrophic disruption.
831 citations
"THE YARKOVSKY AND YORP EFFECTS: Imp..." refers background in this paper
...By properly interpreting how families formed and how they evolved, we obtain powerful constraints for numerical hydrocode models (e.g., Benz & Asphaug 1999) and collisional evolution codes (e.g., Bottke et al. 2005a,b), as well as critical clues that allow us to glean insights into the physical…...
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801 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a best-fit model of the near-Earth objects (NEOs) population is presented, which is fit to known NEs discovered or accidentally rediscovered by Spacewatch.
717 citations
"THE YARKOVSKY AND YORP EFFECTS: Imp..." refers background or methods in this paper
...See Bottke et al. 2002, pp. 501–15 Rubincam DP. 1987....
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...To set the stage for our discussion of how nongravitational forces affect asteroids, we summarize below the main points of this so-called classical asteroid evolution model (see also Bottke et al. 2002b)....
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...Numerical simulations indicate that the mean dynamical lifetimes of the NEOs are several millions of years (Gladman et al. 1997), although the distribution is bimodal (Bottke et al. 2002b)....
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...There are currently ∼1000 NEOs with D > 1 km and semimajor axis a < 7.4 AU (Bottke et al. 2002b, Stuart & Binzel 2004)....
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...…are combined with the related Yarkovsky effect, YORP may help to explain several puzzling issues about the rotational, orbital, and physical parameters of small asteroids ( Bottke et al. 2002b, Rubincam 2000, Rubincam et al. 2002, Vokrouhlický & Čapek 2002, Morbidelli & Vokrouhlický 2003)....
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TL;DR: The Yarkovsky-O'Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack (YORP) effect as mentioned in this paper may spin up or spin down 5-km-radius asteroids on a 108-year timescale.
616 citations
"THE YARKOVSKY AND YORP EFFECTS: Imp..." refers background in this paper
...…are combined with the related Yarkovsky effect, YORP may help to explain several puzzling issues about the rotational, orbital, and physical parameters of small asteroids ( Bottke et al. 2002b, Rubincam 2000, Rubincam et al. 2002, Vokrouhlický & Čapek 2002, Morbidelli & Vokrouhlický 2003)....
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...An important feature of YORP-driven evolution is that the spin axis gradually tilts toward a specific (asymptotic) obliquity value (Rubincam 2000, Bottke et al. 2002b, Vokrouhlický & Čapek 2002)....
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...Thus, an object must have some “windmill” asymmetry for YORP to work; energy reradiated from a symmetrical body (e.g., a sphere or an ellipsoid) produces no net YORP torque (Rubincam 2000, Bottke et al. 2002b, Vokrouhlický & Čapek 2002)....
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...Thus, YORP is most likely to be important in regimes where the YORP cycle is faster than the spin axis reorientation timescale via collisions (Rubincam 2000, Vokrouhlický & Čapek 2002, Čapek & Vokrouhlický 2004)....
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...FOR INDIVIDUAL ASTEROIDS Rubincam (2000) showed that YORP is strongly dependent on an asteroid’s shape, size, distance from the Sun, and orientation....
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