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Journal Article•DOI•

Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis

Hsiu-Fang Hsieh1, Sarah E. Shannon2•
Fooyin University1, University of Washington2
01 Nov 2005-Qualitative Health Research (SAGE Publications)-Vol. 15, Iss: 9, pp 1277-1288
TL;DR: The authors delineate analytic procedures specific to each approach and techniques addressing trustworthiness with hypothetical examples drawn from the area of end-of-life care.
Abstract: Content analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Rather than being a single method, current applications of content analysis show three distinct approaches: conventional, directed, or summative. All three approaches are used to interpret meaning from the content of text data and, hence, adhere to the naturalistic paradigm. The major differences among the approaches are coding schemes, origins of codes, and threats to trustworthiness. In conventional content analysis, coding categories are derived directly from the text data. With a directed approach, analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as guidance for initial codes. A summative content analysis involves counting and comparisons, usually of keywords or content, followed by the interpretation of the underlying context. The authors delineate analytic procedures specific to each approach and techniques addressing trustworthiness with hypothetical examples drawn from the area of end-of-life care.

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Citations
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자연주의적 탐구조사(Naturalistic Inquiry)

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유창조
01 Apr 2000

17,938 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
The qualitative content analysis process

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Satu Elo1, Helvi Kyngäs1•
University of Oulu1
01 Apr 2008-Journal of Advanced Nursing
TL;DR: Inductive content analysis is used in cases where there are no previous studies dealing with the phenomenon or when it is fragmented, and a deductive approach is useful if the general aim was to test a previous theory in a different situation or to compare categories at different time periods.
Abstract: Aim This paper is a description of inductive and deductive content analysis. Background Content analysis is a method that may be used with either qualitative or quantitative data and in an inductive or deductive way. Qualitative content analysis is commonly used in nursing studies but little has been published on the analysis process and many research books generally only provide a short description of this method. Discussion When using content analysis, the aim was to build a model to describe the phenomenon in a conceptual form. Both inductive and deductive analysis processes are represented as three main phases: preparation, organizing and reporting. The preparation phase is similar in both approaches. The concepts are derived from the data in inductive content analysis. Deductive content analysis is used when the structure of analysis is operationalized on the basis of previous knowledge. Conclusion Inductive content analysis is used in cases where there are no previous studies dealing with the phenomenon or when it is fragmented. A deductive approach is useful if the general aim was to test a previous theory in a different situation or to compare categories at different time periods.

14,963 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Scoping studies: advancing the methodology

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Danielle Levac1, Heather Colquhoun1, Kelly K O'Brien1, Kelly K O'Brien2•
McMaster University1, University of Toronto2
20 Sep 2010-Implementation Science
TL;DR: Specific recommendations to clarify and enhance this methodology are outlined for each stage of the Arksey and O'Malley framework, to support the advancement, application and relevance of scoping studies in health research.
Abstract: Scoping studies are an increasingly popular approach to reviewing health research evidence. In 2005, Arksey and O'Malley published the first methodological framework for conducting scoping studies. While this framework provides an excellent foundation for scoping study methodology, further clarifying and enhancing this framework will help support the consistency with which authors undertake and report scoping studies and may encourage researchers and clinicians to engage in this process. We build upon our experiences conducting three scoping studies using the Arksey and O'Malley methodology to propose recommendations that clarify and enhance each stage of the framework. Recommendations include: clarifying and linking the purpose and research question (stage one); balancing feasibility with breadth and comprehensiveness of the scoping process (stage two); using an iterative team approach to selecting studies (stage three) and extracting data (stage four); incorporating a numerical summary and qualitative thematic analysis, reporting results, and considering the implications of study findings to policy, practice, or research (stage five); and incorporating consultation with stakeholders as a required knowledge translation component of scoping study methodology (stage six). Lastly, we propose additional considerations for scoping study methodology in order to support the advancement, application and relevance of scoping studies in health research. Specific recommendations to clarify and enhance this methodology are outlined for each stage of the Arksey and O'Malley framework. Continued debate and development about scoping study methodology will help to maximize the usefulness and rigor of scoping study findings within healthcare research and practice.

7,536 citations

Cites background or methods from "Three Approaches to Qualitative Con..."

  • ...Perhaps synthesizing process information may benefit from utilization of qualitative content analysis approaches to make sense of the wealth of extracted data [11]....

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  • ...’The purpose of a scoping exercise is both to map a wide range of literature, and to envisage where gaps and innovative approaches may lie"’ [[11] p....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Using the framework method for the analysis of qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research

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Nicola Gale1, Gemma Heath1, Elaine Cameron2, Sabina Rashid3, Sabi Redwood1 •
University of Birmingham1, Aston University2, University of Hertfordshire3
18 Sep 2013-BMC Medical Research Methodology
TL;DR: Used effectively, with the leadership of an experienced qualitative researcher, the Framework Method is a systematic and flexible approach to analysing qualitative data and is appropriate for use in research teams even where not all members have previous experience of conducting qualitative research.
Abstract: The Framework Method is becoming an increasingly popular approach to the management and analysis of qualitative data in health research. However, there is confusion about its potential application and limitations. The article discusses when it is appropriate to adopt the Framework Method and explains the procedure for using it in multi-disciplinary health research teams, or those that involve clinicians, patients and lay people. The stages of the method are illustrated using examples from a published study. Used effectively, with the leadership of an experienced qualitative researcher, the Framework Method is a systematic and flexible approach to analysing qualitative data and is appropriate for use in research teams even where not all members have previous experience of conducting qualitative research.

5,939 citations

Cites background from "Three Approaches to Qualitative Con..."

  • ...structured or semi-structured interviews and directed qualitative content analysis [24])....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study

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Mojtaba Vaismoradi1, Mojtaba Vaismoradi2, Hannele Turunen3, Terese Bondas3, Terese Bondas2 •
Swansea University1, University of Nordland2, University of Eastern Finland3
01 Sep 2013-Nursing & Health Sciences
TL;DR: It is concluded that in spite of many similarities between the approaches, including cutting across data and searching for patterns and themes, their main difference lies in the opportunity for quantification of data.
Abstract: Qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis are two commonly used approaches in data analysis of nursing research, but boundaries between the two have not been clearly specified. In other words, they are being used interchangeably and it seems difficult for the researcher to choose between them. In this respect, this paper describes and discusses the boundaries between qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis and presents implications to improve the consistency between the purpose of related studies and the method of data analyses. This is a discussion paper, comprising an analytical overview and discussion of the definitions, aims, philosophical background, data gathering, and analysis of content analysis and thematic analysis, and addressing their methodological subtleties. It is concluded that in spite of many similarities between the approaches, including cutting across data and searching for patterns and themes, their main difference lies in the opportunity for quantification of data. It means that measuring the frequency of different categories and themes is possible in content analysis with caution as a proxy for significance.

5,509 citations

Cites background or methods from "Three Approaches to Qualitative Con..."

  • ...Following and accurately describing the type of approach used in studies can provide a universal language for nurse researchers and strengthen the scientific base of any approach to research (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005)....

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  • ...Inductive content analysis and thematic analysis is used in cases where there are no previous studies dealing with the phenomenon, and therefore the coded categories are derived directly from the text data (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005)....

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  • ...Certainly, content analysis makes sense of what is mediated between people including textual matter, symbols, messages, information, mass-media content, and technology supported social interactions (Krippendorff, 2004; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005)....

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  • ...A deductive approach is useful if the general aim of thematic analysis and content analysis is to test a previous theory in a different situation, or to compare categories at different periods (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008)....

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  • ...It is important for nurse researchers to delineate and recognize the characteristics of the approach they are going to use in their studies before beginning data analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005)....

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References
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Book•
Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook

[...]

Matthew B. Miles, A. Michael Huberman
12 Jan 1994
TL;DR: This book presents a step-by-step guide to making the research results presented in reports, slideshows, posters, and data visualizations more interesting, and describes how coding initiates qualitative data analysis.
Abstract: Matthew B. Miles, Qualitative Data Analysis A Methods Sourcebook, Third Edition. The Third Edition of Miles & Huberman's classic research methods text is updated and streamlined by Johnny Saldana, author of The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. Several of the data display strategies from previous editions are now presented in re-envisioned and reorganized formats to enhance reader accessibility and comprehension. The Third Edition's presentation of the fundamentals of research design and data management is followed by five distinct methods of analysis: exploring, describing, ordering, explaining, and predicting. Miles and Huberman's original research studies are profiled and accompanied with new examples from Saldana's recent qualitative work. The book's most celebrated chapter, "Drawing and Verifying Conclusions," is retained and revised, and the chapter on report writing has been greatly expanded, and is now called "Writing About Qualitative Research." Comprehensive and authoritative, Qualitative Data Analysis has been elegantly revised for a new generation of qualitative researchers. Johnny Saldana, The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers, Second Edition. The Second Edition of Johnny Saldana's international bestseller provides an in-depth guide to the multiple approaches available for coding qualitative data. Fully up-to-date, it includes new chapters, more coding techniques and an additional glossary. Clear, practical and authoritative, the book: describes how coding initiates qualitative data analysis; demonstrates the writing of analytic memos; discusses available analytic software; suggests how best to use the book for particular studies. In total, 32 coding methods are profiled that can be applied to a range of research genres from grounded theory to phenomenology to narrative inquiry. For each approach, Saldana discusses the method's origins, a description of the method, practical applications, and a clearly illustrated example with analytic follow-up. A unique and invaluable reference for students, teachers, and practitioners of qualitative inquiry, this book is essential reading across the social sciences. Stephanie D. H. Evergreen, Presenting Data Effectively Communicating Your Findings for Maximum Impact. This is a step-by-step guide to making the research results presented in reports, slideshows, posters, and data visualizations more interesting. Written in an easy, accessible manner, Presenting Data Effectively provides guiding principles for designing data presentations so that they are more likely to be heard, remembered, and used. The guidance in the book stems from the author's extensive study of research reporting, a solid review of the literature in graphic design and related fields, and the input of a panel of graphic design experts. Those concepts are then translated into language relevant to students, researchers, evaluators, and non-profit workers - anyone in a position to have to report on data to an outside audience. The book guides the reader through design choices related to four primary areas: graphics, type, color, and arrangement. As a result, readers can present data more effectively, with the clarity and professionalism that best represents their work.

41,986 citations

"Three Approaches to Qualitative Con..." refers methods in this paper

  • ...Asearch of content analysis as a subject heading term in the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature produced more than 4,000 articles published between 1991 and 2002....

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  • ...Then, data are read word by word to derive codes (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Morgan, 1993; Morse & Field, 1995) by first highlighting the exact words from the text that appear to capture key thoughts or concepts....

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Book•
Qualitative research and evaluation methods

[...]

Michael Quinn Patton
01 Jan 1980

27,598 citations

"Three Approaches to Qualitative Con..." refers methods in this paper

  • ...These emergent categories are used to organize and group codes into meaningful clusters (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996; Patton, 2002)....

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Book•
Content analysis: an introduction to its methodology

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Klaus Krippendorff
01 Jan 1980
TL;DR: History Conceptual Foundations Uses and Kinds of Inference The Logic of Content Analysis Designs Unitizing Sampling Recording Data Languages Constructs for Inference Analytical Techniques The Use of Computers Reliability Validity A Practical Guide
Abstract: History Conceptual Foundations Uses and Kinds of Inference The Logic of Content Analysis Designs Unitizing Sampling Recording Data Languages Constructs for Inference Analytical Techniques The Use of Computers Reliability Validity A Practical Guide

25,749 citations

"Three Approaches to Qualitative Con..." refers result in this paper

  • ...Others have compared the results of a content analysis with other data collected within the same research project, such as comparing preferences for various types of television programming with socioeconomic indicators of participants (Krippendorff, 1980)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Naturalistic inquiry: Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1985, 416 pp., $25.00 (Cloth)

[...]

Yvonna S. Lincoln, Egon G. Guba, Joseph J. Pilotta
01 Jan 1985-International Journal of Intercultural Relations

21,313 citations

자연주의적 탐구조사(Naturalistic Inquiry)

[...]

유창조
01 Apr 2000

17,938 citations

"Three Approaches to Qualitative Con..." refers background or methods in this paper

  • ...These limitations are related to neutrality or confirmability of trustworthiness as the parallel concept to objectivity (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)....

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  • ...Lincoln and Guba (1985) described this as credibility within the naturalistic paradigm of trustworthiness or internal validity within a paradigm of reliability and validity....

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  • ...We then illustrate the three different approaches to qualitative content analysis with hypothetical studies to explicate the issues of study design and analytical procedures for each approach....

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  • ...Credibility can be established through activities such as peer debriefing, prolonged engagement, persistent observation, triangulation, negative case analysis, referential adequacy, and member checks (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Manning, 1997)....

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  • ...Alternatively, researchers can check with their participants as to their intended meaning through the process of member check (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)....

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01 Oct 1984
Robert K. Yin
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Trending Questions (3)
How does content analysis contribute to understanding and interpreting textual data?

Content analysis contributes to understanding and interpreting textual data through three approaches: conventional, directed, and summative, each offering unique coding schemes and methods to extract meaning from text.

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What are the steps in conventional content analysis?

The steps in conventional content analysis include reading the data repeatedly to achieve immersion, highlighting key thoughts or concepts, and deriving codes from the text.

See answers from 4 other papers  
Step-by-step process of conventional content analysis?

The step-by-step process of conventional content analysis involves deriving coding categories directly from the text data.

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