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Journal ArticleDOI

Three-Dimensional Electron Microscopy Simulation with the CASINO Monte Carlo Software

01 May 2011-Scanning (NIH Public Access)-Vol. 33, Iss: 3, pp 135-146
TL;DR: The development of the 3D version of CASINO is presented, which has an improved energy range for scanning electron microscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopeopy applications and is available freely to the scientific community.
Abstract: Monte Carlo softwares are widely used to understand the capabilities of electron microscopes. To study more realistic applications with complex samples, 3D Monte Carlo softwares are needed. In this article, the development of the 3D version of CASINO is presented. The software feature a graphical user interface, an efficient (in relation to simulation time and memory use) 3D simulation model, accurate physic models for electron microscopy applications, and it is available freely to the scientific community at this website: www.gel.usherbrooke.ca/casino/index.html. It can be used to model backscattered, secondary, and transmitted electron signals as well as absorbed energy. The software features like scan points and shot noise allow the simulation and study of realistic experimental conditions. This software has an improved energy range for scanning electron microscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopy applications.
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The HOPE mass spectrometer of the Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) mission is designed to measure the in situ plasma ion and electron fluxes over 4π sr at each RBSP spacecraft within the terrestrial radiation belts.
Abstract: The HOPE mass spectrometer of the Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) mission (renamed the Van Allen Probes) is designed to measure the in situ plasma ion and electron fluxes over 4π sr at each RBSP spacecraft within the terrestrial radiation belts. The scientific goal is to understand the underlying physical processes that govern the radiation belt structure and dynamics. Spectral measurements for both ions and electrons are acquired over 1 eV to 50 keV in 36 log-spaced steps at an energy resolution ΔE FWHM/E≈15 %. The dominant ion species (H+, He+, and O+) of the magnetosphere are identified using foil-based time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry with channel electron multiplier (CEM) detectors. Angular measurements are derived using five polar pixels coplanar with the spacecraft spin axis, and up to 16 azimuthal bins are acquired for each polar pixel over time as the spacecraft spins. Ion and electron measurements are acquired on alternate spacecraft spins. HOPE incorporates several new methods to minimize and monitor the background induced by penetrating particles in the harsh environment of the radiation belts. The absolute efficiencies of detection are continuously monitored, enabling precise, quantitative measurements of electron and ion fluxes and ion species abundances throughout the mission. We describe the engineering approaches for plasma measurements in the radiation belts and present summaries of HOPE measurement strategy and performance.

477 citations


Cites methods from "Three-Dimensional Electron Microsco..."

  • ...Interactions of incident electrons with the foil were simulated using CASINO (Drouin et al. 2007; Demers et al. 2011)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, photoluminescence, cathodoluminecence, and transmission electron microscopy are used to study charge carrier recombination and retrieve crystallographic and compositional information for all-inorganic CsPbIBr2 films on the nanoscale.
Abstract: Organic–inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells with mixed cations and mixed halides have achieved impressive power conversion efficiency of up to 22.1%. Phase segregation due to the mixed compositions has attracted wide concerns, and their nature and origin are still unclear. Some very useful analytical techniques are controversial in microstructural and chemical analyses due to electron beam-induced damage to the “soft” hybrid perovskite materials. In this study photoluminescence, cathodoluminescence, and transmission electron microscopy are used to study charge carrier recombination and retrieve crystallographic and compositional information for all-inorganic CsPbIBr2 films on the nanoscale. It is found that under light and electron beam illumination, “iodide-rich” CsPbI(1+x)Br(2−x) phases form at grain boundaries as well as segregate as clusters inside the film. Phase segregation generates a high density of mobile ions moving along grain boundaries as ion migration “highways.” Finally, these mobile ions can pile up at the perovskite/TiO2 interface resulting in formation of larger injection barriers, hampering electron extraction and leading to strong current density–voltage hysteresis in the polycrystalline perovskite solar cells. This explains why the planar CsPbIBr2 solar cells exhibit significant hysteresis in efficiency measurements, showing an efficiency of up to 8.02% in the reverse scan and a reduced efficiency of 4.02% in the forward scan, and giving a stabilized efficiency of 6.07%.

299 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
08 Feb 2019-Science
TL;DR: Halide homogenization coincides with long-lived charge carrier decays, spatially homogeneous carrier dynamics, and improved photovoltaic device performance, and it is found that rubidium and potassium phase-segregate in highly concentrated clusters.
Abstract: The role of the alkali metal cations in halide perovskite solar cells is not well understood. Using synchrotron-based nano-x-ray fluorescence and complementary measurements, we found that the halide distribution becomes homogenized upon addition of cesium iodide, either alone or with rubidium iodide, for substoichiometric, stoichiometric, and overstoichiometric preparations, where the lead halide is varied with respect to organic halide precursors. Halide homogenization coincides with long-lived charge carrier decays, spatially homogeneous carrier dynamics (as visualized by ultrafast microscopy), and improved photovoltaic device performance. We found that rubidium and potassium phase-segregate in highly concentrated clusters. Alkali metals are beneficial at low concentrations, where they homogenize the halide distribution, but at higher concentrations, they form recombination-active second-phase clusters.

228 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of the underlying physics as well as a broad review of applicability of the method is presented in this review, along with a brief introduction of its underlying physics.
Abstract: Helium Ion Microcopy (HIM) based on Gas Field Ion Sources (GFIS) represents a new ultra high resolution microscopy and nano-fabrication technique. It is an enabling technology that not only provides imagery of conducting as well as uncoated insulating nano-structures but also allows to create these features. The latter can be achieved using resists or material removal due to sputtering. The close to free-form sculpting of structures over several length scales has been made possible by the extension of the method to other gases such as Neon. A brief introduction of the underlying physics as well as a broad review of the applicability of the method is presented in this review.

219 citations

References
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BookDOI
01 Jan 1985

3,322 citations

01 Jan 2009
TL;DR: The PENELOPE as mentioned in this paper computer code system performs Monte Carlo simulation of coupled electron-photon transport in arbitrary materials for a wide energy range, from a few hundred eV to about 1 GeV.
Abstract: The computer code system PENELOPE (version 2008) performs Monte Carlo simulation of coupled electron-photon transport in arbitrary materials for a wide energy range, from a few hundred eV to about 1 GeV. Photon transport is simulated by means of the standard, detailed simulation scheme. Electron and positron histories are generated on the basis of a mixed procedure, which combines detailed simulation of hard events with condensed simulation of soft interactions. A geometry package called PENGEOM permits the generation of random electron-photon showers in material systems consisting of homogeneous bodies limited by quadric surfaces, i.e., planes, spheres, cylinders, etc. This report is intended not only to serve as a manual of the PENELOPE code system, but also to provide the user with the necessary information to understand the details of the Monte Carlo algorithm.

1,675 citations


"Three-Dimensional Electron Microsco..." refers methods or result in this paper

  • ...…code systems were developed to fill this need of a 3D Monte Carlo software (Yan et al., ’98; Ding and Li, 2005; Ritchie, 2005; Babin et al., 2006; Salvat et al., 2006; Villarrubia et al., 2007; Gnieser et al., 2008; Kieft and Bosch, 2008; Gauvin and Michaud, 2009; Villarrubia and Ding, 2009;…...

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  • ...This simple method to handle region boundary is based on the assumption that the electron transport is a Markov process (Salvat et al., 2006) and past events...

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  • ...This approach is similar to the one used in PENELOPE (Salvat et al., 2006)....

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  • ...This simple method to handle region boundary is based on the assumption that the electron transport is a Markov process (Salvat et al., 2006) and past events does not affect the future events (Ritchie, 2005)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
01 May 2007-Scanning
TL;DR: The intent of this software is to assist scanning electron microscope users in interpretation of imaging and microanalysis and also with more advanced procedures including electron-beam lithography.
Abstract: Monte Carlo simulations have been widely used by microscopists for the last few decades. In the beginning it was a tedious and slow process, requiring a high level of computer skills from users and long computational times. Recent progress in the microelectronics industry now provides researchers with affordable desktop computers with clock rates greater than 3 GHz. With this type of computing power routinely available, Monte Carlo simulation is no longer an exclusive or long (overnight) process. The aim of this paper is to present a new user-friendly simulation program based on the earlier CASINO Monte Carlo program. The intent of this software is to assist scanning electron microscope users in interpretation of imaging and microanalysis and also with more advanced procedures including electron-beam lithography. This version uses a new architecture that provides results twice as quickly. This program is freely available to the scientific community and can be downloaded from the website: (www.gel.usherb.ca/casino).

1,295 citations


"Three-Dimensional Electron Microsco..." refers background or methods in this paper

  • ...…the radial position of BSEs calculated from the primary beam landing position on the sample, and the energy of BSE escaping area as a function of radial distance from the primary beam landing position are distributions available in CASINO and described in detail elsewhere (Drouin et al., 2007)....

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  • ...42) (Drouin et al., 2007) and reviewed in Joy’s book (Joy, ’95b)....

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  • ...SCANNING VOL. 33, 135–146 (2011) & Wiley Periodicals, Inc. make it available to the scientific community as performed with the previous versions (Hovington et al., ’97; Drouin et al., 2007)....

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  • ...However, either because of their limited availability to the scientific community or because of their restriction to expert users only, we have extended the software CASINO (Drouin et al., 2007) to 3D Monte Carlo simulation....

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  • ...In the previous version, only horizontal and vertical layers samples were available (Hovington et al., ’97; Drouin et al., 2007)....

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Book
01 Jan 1984
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe the physics of a scanning electron microscope, including: Electron Optics of a Scanning Electron Microscope., Electron Scattering and Diffusion, Emission of Backscattered and Secondary Electrons, Electron Detectors and Spectrometers, Image Contrast and Signal Processing, and Electron-Beam Induced Current and Cathodoluminescence.
Abstract: Electron Optics of a Scanning Electron Microscope.- Electron Scattering and Diffusion.- Emission of Backscattered and Secondary Electrons.- Electron Detectors and Spectrometers.- Image Contrast and Signal Processing.- Electron-Beam-Induced Current and Cathodoluminescence.- Special Techniques in SEM.- Crystal Structure Analysis by Diffraction.- Elemental Analysis and Imaging with X-Rays.

991 citations


"Three-Dimensional Electron Microsco..." refers background or methods in this paper

  • ...The fast SEs are calculated using the Möller equation (Reimer, ’98)....

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  • ...The shot noise of the electron gun (Reimer, ’98) is included as an optional feature, which results in the variation of the nominal number of electrons N used for each pixel of an image or line scan....

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Book
30 Nov 1981
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an overview of the evolution of the scanning electron microscopy (X-ray microscopy) and the development of the electron probe microanalyzer.
Abstract: 1 Introduction- 11 Evolution of the Scanning Electron Microscope- 12 Evolution of the Electron Probe Microanalyzer- 13 Outline of This Book- 2 Electron Optics- 21 Electron Guns- 211 Thermionic Emission- 212 Tungsten Cathode- 213 The Lanthanum Hexaboride (LaB6) Cathode- 214 Field Emission Gun- 22 Electron Lenses- 221 General Properties of Magnetic Lenses- 222 Production of Minimum Spot Size- 223 Aberrations in the Electron Optical Column- 23 Electron Probe Diameter, dp, vs Electron Probe Current i- 231 Calculation of dmin and imax- 232 Measurement of Microscope Parameters (dp, i, ?)- 233 High-Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy- 3 Electron-Beam-Specimen Interactions- 31 Introduction- 32 Scattering- 321 Elastic Scattering- 322 Inelastic Scattering- 33 Interaction Volume- 331 Experimental Evidence- 332 Monte Carlo Calculations- 34 Backscattered Electrons- 341 Atomic Number Dependence- 342 Energy Dependence- 343 Tilt Dependence- 344 Angular Distribution- 345 Energy Distribution- 346 Spatial Distribution- 347 Sampling Depth- 35 Signals from Inelastic Scattering- 351 Secondary Electrons- 352 X-Rays- 353 Auger Electrons- 354 Cathodoluminescence- 36 Summary- 4 Image Formation in the Scanning Electron Microscope- 41 Introduction- 42 The Basic SEM Imaging Process- 421 Scanning Action- 422 Image Construction (Mapping)- 423 Magnification- 424 Picture Element (Picture Point)- 425 Depth of Field- 426 Image Distortions- 43 Stereomicroscopy- 44 Detectors- 441 Electron Detectors- 442 Cathodoluminescence Detectors- 45 The Roles of Specimen and Detector in Contrast Formation- 451 Contrast- 452 Atomic Number (Compositional) Contrast (Backscattered Electron Signal)- 453 Compositional Contrast (Secondary-Electron Signal)- 454 Contrast Components- 455 Topographic Contrast- 46 Image Quality- 461 Signal Quality and Contrast Information- 462 Strategy in SEM Imaging- 463 Resolution Limitations- 47 Signal Processing for the Display of Contrast Information- 471 The Visibility Problem- 472 Signal Processing Techniques- 473 Combinations of Detectors- 474 Beam Energy Effects- 475 Summary- 5 X-Ray Spectral Measurement: WDS and EDS- 51 Introduction- 52 Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometer- 521 Basic Design- 522 The X-Ray Detector- 523 Detector Electronics- 53 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer- 531 Operating Principles- 532 The Detection Process- 533 Artifacts of the Detection Process- 534 The Main Amplifier and Pulse Pileup Rejection- 535 Artifacts from the Detector Environment- 536 The Multichannel Analyzer- 537 Summary of EDS Operation and Artifacts- 54 Comparison of Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometers with Energy-Dispersive Spectrometers- 541 Geometrical Collection Efficiency- 542 Quantum Efficiency- 543 Resolution- 544 Spectral Acceptance Range- 545 Maximum Count Rate- 546 Minimum Probe Size- 547 Speed of Analysis- 548 Spectral Artifacts- Appendix: Initial Detector Setup and Testing- 6 Qualitative X-Ray Analysis- 61 Introduction- 62 EDS Qualitative Analysis- 621 X-Ray Lines- 622 Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis- 623 Pathological Overlaps in EDS Qualitative Analysis- 624 Examples of EDS Qualitative Analysis- 63 WDS Qualitative Analysis- 631 Measurement of X-Ray Lines- 632 Guidelines for WDS Qualitative Analysis- 64 X-Ray Scanning- 7 Quantitative X-Ray Microanalysis- 71 Introduction- 72 ZAF Technique- 721 Introduction- 722 The Absorption Factor, A- 723 The Atomic Number Factor, Z- 724 The Characteristic Fluorescence Correction, F- 725 The Continuum Fluorescence Correction- 726 Summary Discussion of the ZAF Method- 73 The Empirical Method- 74 Quantitative Analysis with Nonnormal Electron Beam Incidence- 75 Analysis of Particles and Rough Surfaces- 751 Geometric Effects- 752 Compensating for Geometric Effects- 753 Summary- 76 Analysis of Thin Films and Foils- 761 Thin Foils- 762 Thin Films on Substrates- 77 Quantitative Analysis of Biological Material- 771 Introduction- 772 Mass Loss and Artifacts during Analysis- 773 Bulk Samples- 774 Thick Sections on Bulk Substrates- 775 Thin Samples- 776 The Continuum Method- 777 Thick Specimens on Very Thin Supports- 778 Microdroplets- 779 Standards- 7710 Conclusion- Appendix A: Continuum Method- Appendix B: Worked Examples of Quantitative Analysis of Biological Material- Notation- 8 Practical Techniques of X-Ray Analysis- 81 General Considerations of Data Handling- 82 Background Shape- 821 Background Modeling- 822 Background Filtering- 83 Peak Overlap- 831 Linearity- 832 Goodness of Fit- 833 The Linear Methods- 834 The Nonlinear Methods- 835 Error Estimation- 84 Dead-Time Correction- 85 Example of Quantitative Analysis- 86 Precision and Sensitivity in X-Ray Analysis- 861 Statistical Basis for Calculating Precision and Sensitivity- 862 Sample Homogeneity- 863 Analytical Sensitivity- 864 Trace Element Analysis- 87 Light Element Analysis- 9 Materials Specimen Preparation for SEM and X-Ray Microanalysis- 91 Metals and Ceramics- 911 Scanning Electron Microscopy- 912 X-Ray Microanalysis- 92 Particles and Fibers- 93 Hydrous Materials- 931 Soils and Clays- 932 Polymers- 10 Coating Techniques for SEM and Microanalysis- 101 Introduction- 1011 Specimen Characteristics- 1012 Alternatives to Coating- 1013 Thin-Film Technology- 102 Thermal Evaporation- 1021 High-Vacuum Evaporation- 1022 Low-Vacuum Evaporation- 103 Sputter Coating- 1031 Ion Beam Sputtering- 1032 Diode or Direct Current Sputtering- 1033 Cool Diode Sputtering- 1034 Sputtering Techniques- 1035 Choice of Target- 1036 Coating Thickness- 1037 Advantages of Sputter Coating- 1038 Artifacts Associated with Sputter Coating- 104 Specialized Coating Methods- 1041 High-Resolution Coating- 1042 Low-Temperature Coating- 105 Determination of Coating Thickness- 1051 Estimation of Coating Thickness- 1052 Measurement during Coating- 1053 Measurement after Coating- 1054 Removing Coating Layers- 11 Preparation of Biological Samples for Scanning Electron Microscopy- 111 Introduction- 112 Compromising the Microscope- 1121 Environmental Stages- 1122 Nonoptimal Microscope Performance- 113 Compromising the Specimen- 1131 Correlative Microscopy- 1132 Specimen Selection- 1133 Specimen Cleaning- 1134 Specimen Stabilization- 1135 Exposure of Internal Surfaces- 1136 Localizing Areas of Known Physiological Activity- 1137 Specimen Dehydration- 1138 Specimen Supports- 1139 Specimen Conductivity- 11310 Heavy Metal Impregnation- 11311 Interpretation and Artifacts- 12 Preparation of Biological Samples for X-Ray Microanalysis- 121 Introduction- 1211 The Nature and Enormity of the Problem- 1212 Applications of X-Ray Microanalysis- 1213 Types of X-Ray Analytical Investigations- 1214 Types of Biological Specimens- 1215 Strategy- 1216 Criteria for Satisfactory Specimen Preparation- 122 Ambient Temperature Preparative Procedures- 1221 Before Fixation- 1222 Fixation- 1223 Histochemical Techniques- 1224 Precipitation Techniques- 1225 Dehydration- 1226 Embedding- 1227 Sectioning and Fracturing- 1228 Specimen Supports- 1229 Specimen Staining- 12210 Specimen Coating- 123 Low-Temperature Preparative Procedures- 1231 Specimen Pretreatment- 1232 Freezing Procedures- 1233 Movement of Elements within a Given Cellular Compartment- 1234 Postfreezing Procedures- 1235 Frozen-Hydrated and Partially Frozen-Hydrated Material- 1236 Freeze Drying- 1237 Freeze Substitution- 1238 Sectioning- 1239 Fracturing- 12310 Specimen Handling- 124 Microincineration- 13 Applications of the SEM and EPMA to Solid Samples and Biological Materials- 131 Study of Aluminum-Iron Electrical Junctions- 132 Study of Deformation in Situ in the Scanning Electron Microscope- 133 Analysis of Phases in Raney Nickel Alloy- 134 Quantitative Analysis of a New Mineral, Sinoite- 135 Determination of the Equilibrium Phase Diagram for the Fe-Ni-C System- 136 Study of Lunar Metal Particle 63344,1- 137 Observation of Soft Plant Tissue with a High Water Content- 138 Study of Multicellular Soft Plant Tissue with High Water Content- 139 Examination of Single-Celled, Soft Animal Tissue with High Water Content- 1310 Observation of Hard Plant Tissue with a Low Water Content- 1311 Study of Single-Celled Plant Tissue with a Hard Outer Covering and Relatively Low Internal Water Content- 1312 Examination of Medium Soft Animal Tissue with a High Water Content- 1313 Study of Single-Celled Animal Tissue of High Water Content- 14 Data Base- Table 141 Atomic Number, Atomic Weight, and Density of Metals- Table 142 Common Oxides of the Elements- Table 143 Mass Absorption Coefficients for K? Lines- Table 144 Mass Absorption Coefficients for L? Lines- Table 145 Selected Mass Absorption Coefficients- Table 146 K Series X-Ray Wavelengths and Energies- Table 147 L Series X-Ray Wavelengths and Energies- Table 148 M Series X-Ray Wavelengths and Energies- Table 149 Fitting Parameters for Duncumb-Reed Backscattering Correction Factor R- Table 1410 J Values and Fluorescent Yield, ?, Values- Table 1411 Important Properties of Selected Coating Elements- References

651 citations


"Three-Dimensional Electron Microsco..." refers methods in this paper

  • ...The contrast C was calculated to compare the images using the following definition (Goldstein et al., ’92) C ¼ S2 S1 S2 ð3Þ where S1 and S2 are the minimum and maximum pixel values in the image, respectively....

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