User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A Comparison of Two Theoretical Models
TL;DR: In this article, the authors address the ability to predict peoples' computer acceptance from a measure of their intentions, and explain their intentions in terms of their attitudes, subjective norms, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and related variables.
Abstract: Computer systems cannot improve organizational performance if they aren't used. Unfortunately, resistance to end-user systems by managers and professionals is a widespread problem. To better predict, explain, and increase user acceptance, we need to better understand why people accept or reject computers. This research addresses the ability to predict peoples' computer acceptance from a measure of their intentions, and the ability to explain their intentions in terms of their attitudes, subjective norms, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and related variables. In a longitudinal study of 107 users, intentions to use a specific system, measured after a one-hour introduction to the system, were correlated 0.35 with system use 14 weeks later. The intention-usage correlation was 0.63 at the end of this time period. Perceived usefulness strongly influenced peoples' intentions, explaining more than half of the variance in intentions at the end of 14 weeks. Perceived ease of use had a small but significant effect on intentions as well, although this effect subsided over time. Attitudes only partially mediated the effects of these beliefs on intentions. Subjective norms had no effect on intentions. These results suggest the possibility of simple but powerful models of the determinants of user acceptance, with practical value for evaluating systems and guiding managerial interventions aimed at reducing the problem of underutilized computer technology.
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01 Jan 1989
TL;DR: Regression analyses suggest that perceived ease of use may actually be a causal antecdent to perceived usefulness, as opposed to a parallel, direct determinant of system usage.
40,975 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors developed and validated new scales for two specific variables, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, which are hypothesized to be fundamental determinants of user acceptance.
Abstract: Valid measurement scales for predicting user acceptance of computers are in short supply. Most subjective measures used in practice are unvalidated, and their relationship to system usage is unknown. The present research develops and validates new scales for two specific variables, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, which are hypothesized to be fundamental determinants of user acceptance. Definitions of these two variables were used to develop scale items that were pretested for content validity and then tested for reliability and construct validity in two studies involving a total of 152 users and four application programs. The measures were refined and streamlined, resulting in two six-item scales with reliabilities of .98 for usefulness and .94 for ease of use. The scales exhibited hgih convergent, discriminant, and factorial validity. Perceived usefulness was significnatly correlated with both self-reported current usage r = .63, Study 1) and self-predicted future usage r = .85, Study 2). Perceived ease of use was also significantly correlated with current usage r = .45, Study 1) and future usage r = .59, Study 2). In both studies, usefulness had a signficnatly greater correaltion with usage behavior than did ease of use. Regression analyses suggest that perceived ease of use may actually be a causal antecdent to perceived usefulness, as opposed to a parallel, direct determinant of system usage. Implications are drawn for future research on user acceptance.
40,720 citations
TL;DR: The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) as mentioned in this paper is a unified model that integrates elements across the eight models, and empirically validate the unified model.
Abstract: Information technology (IT) acceptance research has yielded many competing models, each with different sets of acceptance determinants. In this paper, we (1) review user acceptance literature and discuss eight prominent models, (2) empirically compare the eight models and their extensions, (3) formulate a unified model that integrates elements across the eight models, and (4) empirically validate the unified model. The eight models reviewed are the theory of reasoned action, the technology acceptance model, the motivational model, the theory of planned behavior, a model combining the technology acceptance model and the theory of planned behavior, the model of PC utilization, the innovation diffusion theory, and the social cognitive theory. Using data from four organizations over a six-month period with three points of measurement, the eight models explained between 17 percent and 53 percent of the variance in user intentions to use information technology. Next, a unified model, called the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), was formulated, with four core determinants of intention and usage, and up to four moderators of key relationships. UTAUT was then tested using the original data and found to outperform the eight individual models (adjusted R2 of 69 percent). UTAUT was then confirmed with data from two new organizations with similar results (adjusted R2 of 70 percent). UTAUT thus provides a useful tool for managers needing to assess the likelihood of success for new technology introductions and helps them understand the drivers of acceptance in order to proactively design interventions (including training, marketing, etc.) targeted at populations of users that may be less inclined to adopt and use new systems. The paper also makes several recommendations for future research including developing a deeper understanding of the dynamic influences studied here, refining measurement of the core constructs used in UTAUT, and understanding the organizational outcomes associated with new technology use.
27,798 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed and tested a theoretical extension of the TAM model that explains perceived usefulness and usage intentions in terms of social influence and cognitive instrumental processes, which was tested using longitudinal data collected regarding four different systems at four organizations (N = 156), two involving voluntary usage and two involving mandatory usage.
Abstract: The present research develops and tests a theoretical extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that explains perceived usefulness and usage intentions in terms of social influence and cognitive instrumental processes. The extended model, referred to as TAM2, was tested using longitudinal data collected regarding four different systems at four organizations ( N = 156), two involving voluntary usage and two involving mandatory usage. Model constructs were measured at three points in time at each organization: preimplementation, one month postimplementation, and three months postimplementation. The extended model was strongly supported for all four organizations at all three points of measurement, accounting for 40%--60% of the variance in usefulness perceptions and 34%--52% of the variance in usage intentions. Both social influence processes (subjective norm, voluntariness, and image) and cognitive instrumental processes (job relevance, output quality, result demonstrability, and perceived ease of use) significantly influenced user acceptance. These findings advance theory and contribute to the foundation for future research aimed at improving our understanding of user adoption behavior.
16,513 citations
TL;DR: The development of an instrument designed to measure the various perceptions that an individual may have of adopting an information technology IT innovation, comprising eight scales which provides a useful tool for the study of the initial adoption and diffusion of innovations.
Abstract: This paper reports on the development of an instrument designed to measure the various perceptions that an individual may have of adopting an information technology IT innovation. This instrument is intended to be a tool for the study of the initial adoption and eventual diffusion of IT innovations within organizations. While the adoption of information technologies by individuals and organizations has been an area of substantial research interest since the early days of computerization, research efforts to date have led to mixed and inconclusive outcomes. The lack of a theoretical foundation for such research and inadequate definition and measurement of constructs have been identified as major causes for such outcomes. In a recent study examining the diffusion of new end-user IT, we decided to focus on measuring the potential adopters' perceptions of the technology. Measuring such perceptions has been termed a "classic issue" in the innovation diffusion literature, and a key to integrating the various findings of diffusion research. The perceptions of adopting were initially based on the five characteristics of innovations derived by Rogers 1983 from the diffusion of innovations literature, plus two developed specifically within this study. Of the existing scales for measuring these characteristics, very few had the requisite levels of validity and reliability. For this study, both newly created and existing items were placed in a common pool and subjected to four rounds of sorting by judges to establish which items should be in the various scales. The objective was to verify the convergent and discriminant validity of the scales by examining how the items were sorted into various construct categories. Analysis of inter-judge agreement about item placement identified both bad items as well as weaknesses in some of the constructs' original definitions. These were subsequently redefined. Scales for the resulting constructs were subjected to three separate field tests. Following the final test, the scales all demonstrated acceptable levels of reliability. Their validity was further checked using factor analysis, as well as conducting discriminant analysis comparing responses between adopters and nonadopters of the innovation. The result is a parsimonious, 38-item instrument comprising eight scales which provides a useful tool for the study of the initial adoption and diffusion of innovations. A short, 25 item, version of the instrument is also suggested.
8,586 citations
References
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TL;DR: In this paper, the concepts of involvement and appreciation are defined, and their measurement in a real-world research setting is presented, and the testing of several hypotheses in this setting indicates that managers who involve themselves with the MIS will appreciate the system, and that managers that are uninvolved will be unappreciative.
Abstract: Failures in the implementation of management information systems “MIS's” can be attributed in part to a lack of managerial “involvement” and “appreciation.” The concepts of involvement and appreciation are defined, and their measurement in a real-world research setting is presented. The testing of several hypotheses in this setting indicates that managers who involve themselves with the MIS will appreciate the system, and that managers who are uninvolved will be unappreciative.
567 citations
"User Acceptance of Computer Technol..." refers background in this paper
...…983 behavior (DeSanctis 1983; Fuerst and Cheney 1982; Ginzberg 1981; 卸的， Olson and Baroudi 1983; Lucas 1975; Robey 1979: Schu1tz and Slevin 1975: Srinivasan 1985; Swanson 1974, 1987) 、 and how these interna1 beliefs and attitudes are, in turn司 influenced by various external factors、 includi…...
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TL;DR: This article found that framing, i.e., priming different decision criteria, influences evaluation outcomes for both expert and novice consumers when the alternatives are noncomparable and influences evaluation outcome for novices when they are comparable.
Abstract: The study finds that framing, i.e., priming different decision criteria, influences evaluation outcomes for both expert and novice consumers when the alternatives are noncomparable and influences evaluation outcomes for novices when the alternatives are comparable. The ready availability of a decision criterion, as opposed to the lack of one, also alters consumers' cognitive responses for noncomparable sets to make these responses appear more like cognitive responses typical of comparable sets. One fundamental distinction between sets of noncomparable and comparable alternatives may be the ready availability of decision criteria versus the need to construct them, rather than any inherent differences in category types.
537 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a new method for representing attitudinal reactions is developed and related to current information integration approaches, and hypotheses about the effects of expectancy-value measures and other measures are tested.
Abstract: A new method for representing attitudinal reactions is developed and related to current information integration approaches. Hypotheses are tested about the effects of expectancy-value measures and ...
504 citations
"User Acceptance of Computer Technol..." refers background in this paper
...A1though svme 叭'ork on the direct e 叮ect of belicfs has been done (e.g. , Bagozzi 1982; Brinberg 1979; Triandis 1977) ' more research is needed to identify the conditions under which attitudes mediate the belief-intention link....
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...Although the direct effect of a be!ief (such as U) on BI runs counter to TRA 、 alterpative intention models provide theoretical justification and empirical evidence of direct belief-intention links (Bagozzi 1982: Triandis 1977: Brinberg 1979)....
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...…any rewards due to performance outcomes contingent on that behavior、 we acknowledge that司 through learning and a能ctÎve-cognitive consistency mechanisms (Bagozzi 1982) ' positively valued outcomes often increase one 、 s affect toward the means to achieving those outcomes (Peak 1955: basic…...
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...…without each tìme requiring a reappraisal of how improved performance contributes to purposes and goals higher in one ' s goal hierarchy, and therefore without necessarily activating the positive affect associated with performance-contingent rewards (Bagozzi 1982~ Vallacher and Wegner 1985)....
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated organizational factors related to user involvement in information system development and perceived system usefulness using a sample of 118 usermanagers in 34 companies and found that user involvement is related positively to users' perceptions of system usefulness.
Abstract: This study investigates organizational factors related to user involvement in information system development and perceived system usefulness Using a sample of 118 usermanagers in 34 companies, the results show that user involvement in design and implementation is related positively to users' perceptions of system usefulness However, organizational factors were not found to be related significantly to user involvement, as had been originally hypothesized Rather, organizational factors either had a direct relationship with perceived usefulness or moderated the relationship between involvement and usefulness Two factors reflecting an MIS department's maturity (size and age) were found to reduce users' perceptions of system usefulness Also, users at higher levels and those making more structured decisions found their systems more useful, although the user's level was found to moderate perceptions of system usefulness during the design stage Three other organizational factors (level of MIS manager, MIS department scope, and decentralization of authority) also were found to have moderating effects
422 citations
TL;DR: In this article, both cognitive and normative structure crossover linkages in the Fishbein and Ajzen behavioral intention model were hypothesized on the basis of nine separate predictions taken from the persuasion and false consensus literatures.
Abstract: Both cognitive and normative structure crossover linkages in the Fishbein and Ajzen behavioral intention model were hypothesized on the basis of nine separate predictions taken from the persuasion and false consensus literatures. In a study of new product trial behavior, a maximum likelihood estimation of the model parameters revealed that the normative structure → attitude path was robust under all data subsets, contrary to the hypothesized relationships. The findings support other recent data suggesting attitudinal dependence on social influence.
422 citations