Using Digital Forensic Techniques to Identify Contract Cheating: A Case Study.
TL;DR: Digital forensics techniques were used to investigate a known case of contract cheating where the contract author has notified the university and the student subsequently confirmed that they had contracted the work out.
Abstract: Contract cheating is a major problem in Higher Education because it is very difficult to detect using traditional plagiarism detection tools. Digital forensics techniques are already used in law to determine ownership of documents, and also in criminal cases, where it is not uncommon to hide information and images within an ordinary looking document using steganography techniques. These digital forensic techniques were used to investigate a known case of contract cheating where the contract author has notified the university and the student subsequently confirmed that they had contracted the work out. Microsoft Word documents use a format known as Office Open XML Format, and as such, it is possible to review the editing process of a document. A student submission known to have been contracted out was analysed using the revision identifiers within the document, and a tool was developed to review these identifiers. Using visualisation techniques it is possible to see a pattern of editing that is inconsistent with the pattern seen in an authentic document.
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors assess the current state of contract cheating research from various methodological and empi cational sources. But they do not discuss the impact of cheating in higher education.
Abstract: Contract cheating is an increasingly challenging problem facing the higher education sector. This study assesses the current state of contract cheating research from various methodological and empi...
28 citations
Cites background from "Using Digital Forensic Techniques t..."
...However, these technologies have limitations in detecting contract cheating in written submissions (Walker and Townley 2012; Lines 2016; Johnson and Davies 2020)....
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...…or text-matching software in the market, such as Turnitin, PlagScan and Urkund, they are largely considered ineffective for detecting contract cheating, as reports supplied by contract cheating services are generally well-written and adequately referenced (Lines 2016; Johnson and Davies 2020)....
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...Currently available technology-assisted detection programs cannot adequately check originality of work through text matching or authorship identification techniques (Johnson and Davies 2020)....
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TL;DR: The analysis uncovers the key clusters, countries’ co-authorship and evolution of research over the past two decades and enriches contemporary knowledge on multifaceted issues of academic misconduct and offers resonant insights for academics, students, and policymakers.
Abstract: The literature on academic misconduct has seen unprecedented growth over the past 20 years. As the research into this vital topic has grown, there have been a few reviews attempting to consolidate the literature. While the extant reviews have been insightful, a careful analysis reveals that these have somewhat different emphases, methods, and time intervals. Our study employs a bibliometric analysis approach on a large set of studies (779) published between 2000 and 2020. The analysis uncovers the key clusters, countries' co-authorship and evolution of research over the past two decades. It enriches contemporary knowledge on multifaceted issues of academic misconduct and offers resonant insights for academics, students, and policymakers. The paper concludes with several promising opportunities for future research.
17 citations
Cites background from "Using Digital Forensic Techniques t..."
...…example, stringent regulations (Bretag et al. 2019), moving toward exam (Harper, Bretag, and Rundle 2020), and application of forensic techniques (Johnson and Davies 2020), there is a lack of broad empirical evidence on if and how could personalized or sequential assessment designs help reduced…...
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...…contract cheaters (Bretag et al. 2019); use of authentic assessment, including complexity, fidelity, and real-word impact (Bretag et al. 2019); having more exams than assignments (Harper, Bretag, and Rundle 2020); and use of forensic techniques to detect contract cheating (Johnson and Davies 2020)....
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors analyzed the advertisements inserted in search engines of Spanish academic services websites in 2018 and 2019 and conducted content analysis of these advertisements, conducted through the use of Se...
Abstract: This article analyses the advertisements inserted in search engines of Spanish academic services websites in 2018 and 2019. Content analysis of these advertisements, conducted through the use of Se...
10 citations
Additional excerpts
...…et al. 2019; Ellis et al. 2020), sensitisation strategies (Khan et al. 2020), forensic detection and analysis systems (Dawson, Sutherland-Smith, and Ricksen 2020; Johnson and Davies 2020) or using regulations and legal provisions (Draper and Newton 2017; Stoesz et al. 2019; Amigud and Dawson 2020)....
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TL;DR: The titles of papers by the ten most prolific academic Integrity researchers are found to use positive terminology in more cases that not, suggesting an approach for emerging academic integrity researchers to model themselves after.
Abstract: Is academic integrity research presented from a positive integrity standpoint? This paper uses Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques to explore a data set of 8,507 academic integrity papers published between 1904 and 2019. Two main techniques are used to linguistically examine paper titles: (1) bigram (word pair) analysis and (2) sentiment analysis. The analysis sees the three main bigrams used in paper titles as being “academic integrity” (2.38%), “academic dishonesty” (2.06%) and “plagiarism detection” (1.05%). When only highly cited papers are considered, negative integrity bigrams dominate positive integrity bigrams. For example, the 100 most cited academic integrity papers of all time are three times more likely to have “academic dishonesty” included in their titles than “academic integrity”. Similarly, sentiment analysis sees negative sentiment outperforming positive sentiment in the most cited papers. The history of academic integrity research is seen to place the field at a disadvantage due to negative portrayals of integrity. Despite this, analysis shows that change towards positive integrity is possible. The titles of papers by the ten most prolific academic integrity researchers are found to use positive terminology in more cases that not. This suggests an approach for emerging academic integrity researchers to model themselves after.
6 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an evidence-based approach to detect and prosecute cases of contract cheating effectively and efficiently, which mimics some aspects of doping testing in professional sport.
Abstract: Contract cheating – outsourcing student assignments for a fee – presents a growing threat to the integrity of higher education. As contract cheating is based on students purchasing assignments that are original (albeit not created by the student), traditional plagiarism detection tools remain insufficient to detect contract cheating. Part of the problem is that proving contract cheating is difficult. As a result, instructors may find it hard to prosecute students (i.e. put them through university academic dishonesty proceedings). To help address the problem, this conceptual paper builds upon extant scholarship on contract cheating and argues that a novel evidence-based approach is needed. Such an approach should allow instructors to detect and prosecute cases of contract cheating effectively and efficiently. The paper then presents an outline of such an approach and calls it the “Doping Test” approach as it mimics some aspects of doping testing in professional sport.
6 citations
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Journal Article•
TL;DR: Transdisciplinarity as discussed by the authors is characterized by its focus on "wicked problems" that need creative solutions, its reliance on stakeholder involvement, and engaged, socially responsible science, and it provides an intriguing potential to invigorate scholarly and scientific inquiry both in and outside the academy.
Abstract: Transdisciplinarity originated in a critique of the standard configuration of knowledge in disciplines in the curriculum, including moral and ethical concerns. Pronouncements about it were first voiced between the climax of government-supported science and higher education and the long retrenchment that began in the 1970s. Early work focused on questions of epistemology and the planning of future universities and educational programs. After a lull, transdisciplinarity re-emerged in the 1990s as an urgent issue relating to the solution of new, highly complex, global concerns, beginning with climate change and sustainability and extending into many areas concerning science, technology, social problems and policy, education, and the arts. Transdisciplinarity today is characterized by its focus on “wicked problems” that need creative solutions, its reliance on stakeholder involvement, and engaged, socially responsible science. In simultaneously studying multiple levels of, and angles on, reality, transdisciplinary work provides an intriguing potential to invigorate scholarly and scientific inquiry both in and outside the academy.
228 citations
TL;DR: Students placing trust in online paraphrasing tools as an easy way of complying with the requirement for originality in submissions are at risk in terms of the quality of the output generated and possibly of not achieving the learning outcomes as they may not fully understand the information they have compiled.
Abstract: A casual comment by a student alerted the authors to the existence and prevalence of Internet-based paraphrasing tools. A subsequent quick Google search highlighted the broad range and availability of online paraphrasing tools which offer free ‘services’ to paraphrase large sections of text ranging from sentences, paragraphs, whole articles, book chapters or previously written assignments. The ease of access to online paraphrasing tools provides the potential for students to submit work they have not directly written themselves, or in the case of academics and other authors, to rewrite previously published materials to sidestep self-plagiarism. Students placing trust in online paraphrasing tools as an easy way of complying with the requirement for originality in submissions are at risk in terms of the quality of the output generated and possibly of not achieving the learning outcomes as they may not fully understand the information they have compiled. There are further risks relating to the legitimacy of the outputs in terms of academic integrity and plagiarism. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the existence, development, use and detection of use of Internet based paraphrasing tools. To demonstrate the dangers in using paraphrasing tools an experiment was conducted using some easily accessible Internet-based paraphrasing tools to process part of an existing publication. Two sites are compared to demonstrate the types of differences that exist in the quality of the output from certain paraphrasing algorithms, and the present poor performance of online originality checking services such as Turnitin® to identify and link material processed via machine based paraphrasing tools. The implications for student skills in paraphrasing, academic integrity and the clues to assist staff in identifying the use of online paraphrasing tools are discussed.
94 citations
TL;DR: Bretag and Mahmud as mentioned in this paper explored the use of electronic text-matching software to detect different types of plagiarism, and a model presented for identifying potential plagiarism in students’ work.
Abstract: This paper provides insights based on the authors’ own practice as university instructors, researchers and arbitrators of student plagiarism. Recognising the difficulty in defining plagiarism while still acknowledging the practical importance of doing so, the authors find the common element between the various types of plagiarism to be the lack of appropriate attribution to the original source. The use of electronic text-matching software to detect different types of plagiarism is explored, and a model presented for identifying potential plagiarism in students’ work. The authors conclude that despite its shortcomings, electronic detection in combination with manual analysis, nuanced academic judgement and clear processes provide the means to determine if plagiarism has occurred. Cover Page Footnote Saadia Mahmud, previously known as Saadia Carapiet. This journal article is available in Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice: http://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol6/iss1/6 Journal o f Univer s i t y Teaching and Learn ing Prac t ic e A model for determining student plagiarism: Electronic detection and academic judgement. Tracey Bretag and Saadia Mahmud School of Management, University of South Australia tracey.bretag@unisa.edu.au; saadia.mahmud@unisa.edu.au Abstract This paper provides insights based on the authors’ own practice as university instructors, researchers and arbitrators of student plagiarism. Recognising the difficulty in defining plagiarism while still acknowledging the practical importance of doing so, the authors find the common element between the various types of plagiarism to be the lack of appropriate attribution to the original source. The use of electronic text-matching software to detect different types of plagiarism is explored, and a model presented for identifying potential plagiarism in students’ work. The authors conclude that despite its shortcomings, electronic detection in combination with manual analysis, nuanced academic judgement and clear processes provide the means to determine if plagiarism has occurred.This paper provides insights based on the authors’ own practice as university instructors, researchers and arbitrators of student plagiarism. Recognising the difficulty in defining plagiarism while still acknowledging the practical importance of doing so, the authors find the common element between the various types of plagiarism to be the lack of appropriate attribution to the original source. The use of electronic text-matching software to detect different types of plagiarism is explored, and a model presented for identifying potential plagiarism in students’ work. The authors conclude that despite its shortcomings, electronic detection in combination with manual analysis, nuanced academic judgement and clear processes provide the means to determine if plagiarism has occurred. 1 Saadia Mahmud, previously known as Saadia Carapiet. A m o d e l f o r d e t e r m i n i ng s t u d en t p la g i a r i s m : E l e c t r o n i c d e te c t i on an d a c ad e m i c j u d ge m e n t T r a c e y B r e t a g a nd S aa d i a Ma h mu d Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice Vol 6.1, 2009 50 Introduction The public perception that plagiarism is on the rise has resulted in a proliferation of discussion and research on student plagiarism (Angelil-Carter, 2000; Bretag, 2005, 2007; Carroll, 2003a; Devlin, 2003; McCabe, Butterfield & Trevino, 2006; Zobel & Hamilton, 2002). Internationally recognised author and practitioner, Jude Carroll, has publicly stated that plagiarism exists in all educational institutions, and those that do not admit to the problem are not being honest (Carroll, 2003b; see also Piety, 2002). What seems to be emerging from commentary and research is the understanding that student plagiarism is here to stay. As Carroll has noted, “definitions matter and agreeing on a good one is harder than you think” (2003a, p. 12). However, despite the difficulties of defining plagiarism, there is a significant body of literature providing detailed advice on how to respond to student plagiarism, in terms of preventative, punitive and educative measures. Researchers have provided practical recommendations at the institutional level, and strategies at the individual educator level to deal with plagiarism, and many of these suggestions overlap. One of the strategies to detect and deter student plagiarism has been the development of electronic software tools. When these tools first became available many educators believed that they would provide an easily implemented solution, which would cut down on the hours of tedious manual detection. However, within a short period of time, it became clear that electronic detection software “is not a magic bullet” (Carroll, 2003a) and that it is just one tool among many to be used within an educative framework. Using our own research and practice as a basis, we argue that despite its shortcomings, electronic detection in combination with manual analysis, nuanced academic judgement and clear processes provide the means to determine if plagiarism has occurred. This paper extends this understanding and provides a simple model to assist in the identification of student plagiarism. We suggest that the most appropriate use of such a model is within an educative framework that encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning while working hand in hand with instructors during the drafting stages of their work. In the initial sections of this paper, the authors review a wide variety of definitions and types of ‘plagiarisms’ identified in the literature. While acknowledging the complex nature of plagiarism, we conclude that the common element in the various ‘plagiarisms’ is the lack of appropriate attribution to the original source. The paper then explores the various responses to student plagiarism recommended in the literature, the use of electronic tools to detect plagiarism, and the way that such tools can be used within an educative framework to enhance student learning.
67 citations
"Using Digital Forensic Techniques t..." refers background in this paper
...“Educators and researchers working in the field of academic integrity agree that electronic detection is not the solution to eliminating plagiarism” (Bretag & Mahmud, 2009), whilst Rogerson (2017) suggests that “Some knowledge of the practices of students … can be useful to identify instances of…...
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...In their paper of 2009, Bretag and Mahmud conclude that electronic detection provides an effective starting point in detecting plagiarism but that this must be “combined with considerable manual analysis and subjective judgement”. Identifying contract cheating introduces further problems: the work may be original and of good standard – it just isn’t written by the person who has submitted it. “Educators and researchers working in the field of academic integrity agree that electronic detection is not the solution to eliminating plagiarism” (Bretag & Mahmud, 2009), whilst Rogerson (2017) suggests that “Some knowledge of the practices of students ....
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify some of the patterns and clues observed in essay and report submissions and confirm the irregularities identified were confirmed as instances of contract cheating through conversations held with postgraduate students.
Abstract: Detecting contract cheating in written submissions can be difficult beyond direct plagiarism detectable via technology. Successfully identifying potential cases of contract cheating in written work such as essays and reports is largely dependent on the experience of assessors and knowledge of student. It is further dependent on their familiarity with the patterns and clues evident in sections of body text and reference materials to identify irregularities. Consequently, some knowledge of what the patterns and clues look like is required. This paper documents how to identify some of the patterns and clues observed in essay and report submissions. Effective assessment design with specific contextual requirements make irregularities easier to detect and interpret. The irregularities identified were confirmed as instances of contract cheating through conversations held with postgraduate students. An essential element of the conversations was the evidence presented for discussion. Irregularities were noted on a pro-forma specifically developed for this purpose. Patterns identified include misrepresented bibliographic data, inappropriate references, irrelevant material and generalised text that did not address the assessment question or grading criteria. The validated patterns formed the basis of identifying potential instances of contract cheating in later submissions. Timely conversations with students before the end of semester are essential to determining whether the patterns and clues link to poor knowledge of academic writing conventions or classified as contract cheating necessitating the application of appropriate penalties under institutional policies and procedures.
65 citations
"Using Digital Forensic Techniques t..." refers background in this paper
...…working in the field of academic integrity agree that electronic detection is not the solution to eliminating plagiarism” (Bretag & Mahmud, 2009), whilst Rogerson (2017) suggests that “Some knowledge of the practices of students … can be useful to identify instances of potential contract cheating”....
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TL;DR: Methods for OOXML format files to detect the time information and creator information, which can be used to determine who the real copyright holder is when a copyright dispute occurs are presented.
27 citations