Vaccines for fish in aquaculture
TL;DR: This review provides an overview of the fish vaccines that are currently commercially available and some viewpoints on how the field is likely to evolve in the near future.
Abstract: Vaccination plays an important role in large-scale commercial fish farming and has been a key reason for the success of salmon cultivation. In addition to salmon and trout, commercial vaccines are available for channel catfish, European seabass and seabream, Japanese amberjack and yellowtail, tilapia and Atlantic cod. In general, empirically developed vaccines based on inactivated bacterial pathogens have proven to be very efficacious in fish. Fewer commercially available viral vaccines and no parasite vaccines exist. Substantial efficacy data are available for new fish vaccines and advanced technology has been implemented. However, before such vaccines can be successfully commercialized, several hurdles have to be overcome regarding the production of cheap but effective antigens and adjuvants, while bearing in mind environmental and associated regulatory concerns (e.g., those that limit the use of live vaccines). Pharmaceutical companies have performed a considerable amount of research on fish vaccines, however, limited information is available in scientific publications. In addition, salmonids dominate both the literature and commercial focus, despite their relatively small contribution to the total volume of farmed fish in the world. This review provides an overview of the fish vaccines that are currently commercially available and some viewpoints on how the field is likely to evolve in the near future.
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TL;DR: It is shown that IgT, an immunoglobulin isotype of unknown function, acts like a mucosal antibody, and detected responses of rainbow trout IgT to an intestinal parasite only in the gut, whereas IgM responses were confined to the serum.
Abstract: Teleost fish are the most primitive bony vertebrates that contain immunoglobulins. In contrast to mammals and birds, these species are devoid of immunoglobulin A (IgA) or a functional equivalent. This observation suggests that specialization of immunoglobulin isotypes into mucosal and systemic responses took place during tetrapod evolution. Challenging that paradigm, here we show that IgT, an immunoglobulin isotype of unknown function, acts like a mucosal antibody. We detected responses of rainbow trout IgT to an intestinal parasite only in the gut, whereas IgM responses were confined to the serum. IgT coated most intestinal bacteria. As IgT and IgA are phylogenetically distant immunoglobulins, their specialization into mucosal responses probably occurred independently by a process of convergent evolution.
729 citations
Cites background from "Vaccines for fish in aquaculture"
...IgM responses in teleost plasma have been studied extensively and are typically characterized as having high titers in response to infection or vaccinatio...
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TL;DR: Environmental releases of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria can in many cases be reduced at little or no cost and the anticipated benefit is an extended useful life span for current and future antibiotics.
Abstract: Background: There is growing concern worldwide about the role of polluted soil and water environments in the development and dissemination of antibiotic resistance.Objective: Our aim in this study ...
659 citations
TL;DR: Fish are the first animal phyla to possess both an innate and adaptive immune system making them very interesting as regards developmental studies of the immune system, and the main prophylactic measures, including vaccination, probiotics and immunostimulation are covered.
Abstract: All metazoans possess innate immune defence system whereas parameters of the adaptive immune system make their first appearance in the gnathostomata, the jawed vertebrates. Fish are therefore the first animal phyla to possess both an innate and adaptive immune system making them very interesting as regards developmental studies of the immune system. The massive increase in aquaculture in recent decades has also put greater emphasis on studies of the fish immune system and defence against diseases commonly associated with intensive fish rearing. Some of the main components of the innate and adaptive immune system of fish are described. The innate parameters are at the forefront of immune defence in fish and are a crucial factor in disease resistance. The adaptive response of fish is commonly delayed but is essential for lasting immunity and a key factor in successful vaccination. Some of the inherent and external factors that can manipulate the immune system of fish are discussed, the main fish diseases are listed and the pathogenicity and host defence discussed. The main prophylactic measures are covered, including vaccination, probiotics and immunostimulation. A key element in the immunological control of fish diseases is the great variation in disease susceptibility and immune defence of different fish species, a reflection of the extended time the present day teleosts have been separated in evolution. Future research will probably make use of molecular and proteomic tools both to study important elements in immune defence and prophylactic measures and to assist with breeding programmes for disease resistance.
574 citations
Cites background from "Vaccines for fish in aquaculture"
...Various reviews have listed the main bacterial diseases affecting aquaculture today (see reviews by Ellis 1999; Ellis 2001; Sommerset et al. 2005a; Toranzo et al. 2005; Bricknell et al. 2006)....
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...Viral Infections The main viral fish diseases in aquaculture have been listed in several reviews (Jeney and Jeney 1995; Ellis 2001; Sommerset et al. 2005a; Bricknell et al. 2006; Samuelsen et al. 2006)....
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...…the danger of the plasmid being introduced to another unrelated host with unforeseeable consequences for the environment (Lorenzen et al. 2002; Lorenzen et al. 2005; Sommerset et al. 2005b; Kanellos et al. 2006; Kurath et al. 2006; Kumar et al. 2007; Gillund et al. 2008; Pakingking et al. 2009)....
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...Vaccine effectiveness varies considerably depending on the fish species, the age of the fish and cultural condition (Sommerset et al. 2005a; Gudmundsdottir and Björnsdottir 2007)....
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...However, no commercial vaccines have so far been produced against parasitic infections (Sommerset et al. 2005a)....
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496 citations
TL;DR: The existence of protective responses has been demonstrated for several fish parasites, both in natural infections and in immunization studies, and known information points to the need for integrated studies of the mechanisms involved in protection.
368 citations
References
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TL;DR: Innate defenses provide a pre-existing and fast-acting system of protection which is non-specific and relatively temperature-independent and thus has several advantages over the slow-acting and temperature-dependent specific immune responses.
Abstract: The integumental defenses provide a physical and chemical barrier to the attachment and penetration of microbes. Besides the entrapping and sloughing of microbes in the mucus, the latter contains many antibacterial substances including anti-bacterial peptides, lysozyme, lectins and proteases. The gastro-intestinal tract is a hostile environment of acids, bile salts and enzymes able to inactivate and digest many viruses and bacteria. In most cases the integumental defenses are sufficient to protect against even quite virulent organisms which often only produce disease when the integument has been physically damaged. If a microbe gains access to the tissues of the fish, it is met with an array of soluble and cellular defenses. The complement system, present in the blood plasma, plays a central role in recognising bacteria and its activated products may lyse the bacterial cells, initiate inflammation, induce the influx of phagocytes and enhance their phagocytic activity. Complement can be activated directly by bacterial products and constituents and also indirectly by other factors, principally C-reactive protein and lectins, which can also bind to the bacterial surface. Plasma also contains a number of factors which inhibit bacterial growth(e.g. transferrin and anti-proteases) or which are bactericidal e.g. lysozyme. Following the infection of fish with virus pathogens, infected cells produce interferon. This induces antiviral defenses in neighbouring cells which are then protected from becoming infected. Anti-viral cytotoxic cells are able to lyse virally infected cells and thus reduce the rate of multiplication of virus within them. Innate defenses thus provide a pre-existing and fast-acting system of protection which is non-specific and relatively temperature-independent and thus has several advantages over the slow-acting and temperature-dependent specific immune responses.
1,115 citations
TL;DR: In the last decade betanodavirus infections have emerged as major constraints on the culture of marine fish in all parts of the world with the exception of the African continent and the measures identified have not been adequately implemented by producers with the result that catastrophic losses still occur on a regular basis.
Abstract: In the last decade betanodavirus infections have emerged as major constraints on the culture of marine fish in all parts of the world with the exception of the African continent. The occurrence of these infections appears to be a function of the number of species cultured and the intensity of culture. This has been further complicated by the promiscuous translocation of stock within and between countries. Great strides have been made in defining these agents and producing diagnostic techniques but much more remains to be done. Lack of knowledge of the epidemiology of the diseases caused by nodaviruses, except for vertical transmission of the pathogen in some species, has impeded the development of control measures but, even so, the measures identified to date have not been adequately implemented by producers with the result that catastrophic losses still occur on a regular basis.
552 citations
TL;DR: This review examines the voluminous literature on the biology and control of sealice and brings together ideas for developing the authors' knowledge of these organisms.
Abstract: Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Caligus elongatus are the two common species of sealice responsible for serious disease problems in salmonid aquaculture. L. salmonis in particular is the most serious parasitic infection on Atlantic salmon farms in the Northern Hemisphere and is the best-known species. This review examines the voluminous literature on the biology and control of sealice and brings together ideas for developing our knowledge of these organisms. Research on the distribution, host range, structure, life cycle, epidemiology, laboratory maintenance, reproductive biology, physiology and pathogenesis is reviewed in depth. The control strategy and economic cost to the industry is discussed. The interactions between wild and cultured salmonids are examined.
438 citations
Journal Article•
TL;DR: These studies show that DNA vaccination will protect rainbow trout against the lethal effects of IHNV infection.
Abstract: Plasmid vectors encoding the infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) nucleoprotein or glycoprotein gene under the control of a cytomegalovirus promoter were used to immunize rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) against IHNV. The plasmid DNA was injected into the skeletal muscle of rainbow trout fry, and immunization was determined by the detection of virus-neutralizing and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay antibody activity, and by protection against live virus challenge. Fish injected with the glycoprotein-encoding plasmid pCMV4-G, either alone or in combination with the nucleoprotein-encoding plasmid pCMV4-N, generated glycoprotein-specific and virus-neutralizing antibody responses. The vaccinated fish were also protected from subsequent IHNV challenge. Fish receiving pCMV4-N alone did not produce measurable virus-specific antibody and were killed by IHNV infection. These studies show that DNA vaccination will protect rainbow trout against the lethal effects of IHNV infection.
273 citations
TL;DR: The isolation and characterization of a cDNA that encodes Bm86 is reported, suggesting the presence of several epidermal growth factor-like domains in tick gut epithelial cells.
Abstract: Glycoproteins located on the luminal surface of the plasma membrane of tick gut epithelial cells, when used to vaccinate cattle, are capable of stimulating an immune response that protects cattle against subsequent tick infestation. One such tick gut glycoprotein, designated Bm86, has been purified to homogeneity and the amino acid sequences of peptide fragments generated by endoproteinase Lys-C digestion have been determined. We report here the isolation and characterization of a cDNA that encodes Bm86. The nucleotide sequence of the cDNA contains a 1982-base-pair open reading frame and predicts that Bm86 contains 650 amino acids including a 19-amino acid signal sequence and a 23-amino acid hydrophobic region adjacent to the carboxyl terminus. The main feature of the deduced protein sequence is the repeated pattern of 6 cysteine residues, suggesting the presence of several epidermal growth factor-like domains. A fusion protein consisting of 599 amino acids of Bm86 and 651 amino acids of beta-galactosidase was expressed in Escherichia coli as inclusion bodies. Ticks engorging on cattle vaccinated with these inclusion bodies were significantly damaged as a result of the immune response against the cloned antigen.
265 citations