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Journal ArticleDOI

Very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas.

TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas (excluding Antarctica) at a spatial resolution of 30 arc s (often referred to as 1-km spatial resolution).
Abstract: We developed interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas (excluding Antarctica) at a spatial resolution of 30 arc s (often referred to as 1-km spatial resolution). The climate elements considered were monthly precipitation and mean, minimum, and maximum temperature. Input data were gathered from a variety of sources and, where possible, were restricted to records from the 1950–2000 period. We used the thin-plate smoothing spline algorithm implemented in the ANUSPLIN package for interpolation, using latitude, longitude, and elevation as independent variables. We quantified uncertainty arising from the input data and the interpolation by mapping weather station density, elevation bias in the weather stations, and elevation variation within grid cells and through data partitioning and cross validation. Elevation bias tended to be negative (stations lower than expected) at high latitudes but positive in the tropics. Uncertainty is highest in mountainous and in poorly sampled areas. Data partitioning showed high uncertainty of the surfaces on isolated islands, e.g. in the Pacific. Aggregating the elevation and climate data to 10 arc min resolution showed an enormous variation within grid cells, illustrating the value of high-resolution surfaces. A comparison with an existing data set at 10 arc min resolution showed overall agreement, but with significant variation in some regions. A comparison with two high-resolution data sets for the United States also identified areas with large local differences, particularly in mountainous areas. Compared to previous global climatologies, ours has the following advantages: the data are at a higher spatial resolution (400 times greater or more); more weather station records were used; improved elevation data were used; and more information about spatial patterns of uncertainty in the data is available. Owing to the overall low density of available climate stations, our surfaces do not capture of all variation that may occur at a resolution of 1 km, particularly of precipitation in mountainous areas. In future work, such variation might be captured through knowledgebased methods and inclusion of additional co-variates, particularly layers obtained through remote sensing. Copyright  2005 Royal Meteorological Society.

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Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) at Deutscher Wetterdienst has calculated a precipitation climatology for the global land areas for the target period 1951-2000 by objective analysis of climatological normals of about 67,200 rain gauge stations from its data base.
Abstract: In 1989, the need for reliable gridded land surface precipitation data sets, in view of the large uncertainties in the assessment of the global energy and water cycle, has led to the establishment of the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) at Deutscher Wetterdienst on invitation of the WMO. The GPCC has calculated a precipitation climatology for the global land areas for the target period 1951–2000 by objective analysis of climatological normals of about 67,200 rain gauge stations from its data base. GPCC's new precipitation climatology is compared to several other station-based precipitation climatologies as well as to precipitation climatologies derived from the GPCP V2.2 data set and from ECMWF's model reanalyses ERA-40 and ERA-Interim. Finally, how GPCC's best estimate for terrestrial mean precipitation derived from the precipitation climatology of 786 mm per year (equivalent to a water transport of 117,000 km3) is fitting into the global water cycle context is discussed.

1,107 citations


Cites methods from "Very high resolution interpolated c..."

  • ...…Unit (CRU; New et al. 2002; Mitchell et al. 2004), NOAA's precipitation reconstruction over land (the PREC/L data set being over land an optimum interpolation of gauge measurements; Chen et al. 2002), the WorldClim data set (Hijmans et al. 2005), and the climatology of Matsuura and Willmott (2009)....

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  • ...2002), the WorldClim data set (Hijmans et al. 2005), and the climatology of Matsuura and Willmott (2009)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A statistical framework to describe and compare environmental niches from occurrence and spatial environmental data and shows that niche overlap can be accurately detected with the framework when variables driving the distributions are known.
Abstract: Aim Concerns over how global change will influence species distributions, in conjunction with increased emphasis on understanding niche dynamics in evolutionary and community contexts, highlight the growing need for robust methods to quantify niche differences between or within taxa. We propose a statistical framework to describe and compare environmental niches from occurrence and spatial environmental data. Location Europe, North America and South America. Methods The framework applies kernel smoothers to densities of species occurrence in gridded environmental space to calculate metrics of niche overlap and test hypotheses regarding niche conservatism. We use this framework and simulated species with pre-defined distributions and amounts of niche overlap to evaluate several ordination and species distribution modelling techniques for quantifying niche overlap. We illustrate the approach with data on two well-studied invasive species. Results We show that niche overlap can be accurately detected with the framework when variables driving the distributions are known. The method is robust to known and previously undocumented biases related to the dependence of species occurrences on the frequency of environmental conditions that occur across geographical space. The use of a kernel smoother makes the process of moving from geographical space to multivariate environmental space independent of both sampling effort and arbitrary choice of resolution in environmental space. However, the use of ordination and species distribution model techniques for selecting, combining and weighting variables on which niche overlap is calculated provide contrasting results. Main conclusions The framework meets the increasing need for robust methods to quantify niche differences. It is appropriate for studying niche differences between species, subspecies or intra-specific lineages that differ in their geographical distributions. Alternatively, it can be used to measure the degree to which the environmental niche of a species or intra-specific lineage has changed over time.

1,095 citations


Cites methods from "Very high resolution interpolated c..."

  • ...These variables come from widely used, on-line collections such as WorldClim (Hijmans et al., 2005), a wealth of other variables of some physiological and demographic importance (e.g. Zimmermann et al., 2009), and physical habitat variation as represented by country and regional land cover as well as land-use classifications (e.g. Lütolf et al., 2009)....

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  • ...These variables come from widely used, on-line collections such as WorldClim (Hijmans et al., 2005), a wealth of other variables of some physiological and demographic importance (e....

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  • ...These variables come from widely used, on-line collections such as WorldClim (Hijmans et al., 2005), a wealth of other variables of some physiological and demographic importance (e.g. Zimmermann et al., 2009), and physical habitat variation as represented by country and regional land cover as well…...

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article explored the likely consequences of climate change for the geographical redistribution of terrestrial and marine species at a global scale using a comprehensive data set of thermal tolerance limits, latitudinal range boundaries and latitudinal shift of cold-blooded animals.
Abstract: Using a comprehensive data set of thermal tolerance limits, latitudinal range boundaries and latitudinal range shifts of cold-blooded animals, this study explores the likely consequences of climate change for the geographical redistribution of terrestrial and marine species at a global scale.

1,093 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: TerraClimate datasets showed noted improvement in overall mean absolute error and increased spatial realism relative to coarser resolution gridded datasets, as well as annual runoff from streamflow gauges.
Abstract: We present TerraClimate, a dataset of high-spatial resolution (1/24°, ~4-km) monthly climate and climatic water balance for global terrestrial surfaces from 1958-2015. TerraClimate uses climatically aided interpolation, combining high-spatial resolution climatological normals from the WorldClim dataset, with coarser resolution time varying (i.e., monthly) data from other sources to produce a monthly dataset of precipitation, maximum and minimum temperature, wind speed, vapor pressure, and solar radiation. TerraClimate additionally produces monthly surface water balance datasets using a water balance model that incorporates reference evapotranspiration, precipitation, temperature, and interpolated plant extractable soil water capacity. These data provide important inputs for ecological and hydrological studies at global scales that require high spatial resolution and time varying climate and climatic water balance data. We validated spatiotemporal aspects of TerraClimate using annual temperature, precipitation, and calculated reference evapotranspiration from station data, as well as annual runoff from streamflow gauges. TerraClimate datasets showed noted improvement in overall mean absolute error and increased spatial realism relative to coarser resolution gridded datasets.

1,079 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
14 Oct 2011-Science
TL;DR: Tree cover, climate, fire, and soils data sets are used to show that tree cover is globally discontinuous, and only fire differentiates between savanna and forest.
Abstract: Theoretically, fire–tree cover feedbacks can maintain savanna and forest as alternative stable states. However, the global extent of fire-driven discontinuities in tree cover is unknown, especially accounting for seasonality and soils. We use tree cover, climate, fire, and soils data sets to show that tree cover is globally discontinuous. Climate influences tree cover globally but, at intermediate rainfall (1000 to 2500 millimeters) with mild seasonality (less than 7 months), tree cover is bimodal, and only fire differentiates between savanna and forest. These may be alternative states over large areas, including parts of Amazonia and the Congo. Changes in biome distributions, whether at the cost of savanna (due to fragmentation) or forest (due to climate), will be neither smooth nor easily reversible.

1,043 citations

References
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a database of monthly climate observations from meteorological stations is constructed and checked for inhomogeneities in the station records using an automated method that refines previous methods by using incomplete and partially overlapping records and by detecting inhomalities with opposite signs in different seasons.
Abstract: A database of monthly climate observations from meteorological stations is constructed. The database includes six climate elements and extends over the global land surface. The database is checked for inhomogeneities in the station records using an automated method that refines previous methods by using incomplete and partially overlapping records and by detecting inhomogeneities with opposite signs in different seasons. The method includes the development of reference series using neighbouring stations. Information from different sources about a single station may be combined, even without an overlapping period, using a reference series. Thus, a longer station record may be obtained and fragmentation of records reduced. The reference series also enables 1961–90 normals to be calculated for a larger proportion of stations. The station anomalies are interpolated onto a 0.5° grid covering the global land surface (excluding Antarctica) and combined with a published normal from 1961–90. Thus, climate grids are constructed for nine climate variables (temperature, diurnal temperature range, daily minimum and maximum temperatures, precipitation, wet-day frequency, frost-day frequency, vapour pressure, and cloud cover) for the period 1901–2002. This dataset is known as CRU TS 2.1 and is publicly available (http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/). Copyright  2005 Royal Meteorological Society.

4,011 citations


"Very high resolution interpolated c..." refers background in this paper

  • ...…we have made significant progress, additional efforts to compile and capture climate data are needed to improve spatial and temporal coverage of the available climate data and quality control (Mitchell and Jones, 2005), and interpolation methods can be further refined to better use these data....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the construction of a 10' latitude/longitude data set of mean monthly sur-face climate over global land areas, excluding Antarctica, was described, which includes 8 climate conditions: precipitation, wet-day frequency, temperature, diurnal temperature range, relative humid-ity, sunshine duration, ground frost frequency and windspeed.
Abstract: We describe the construction of a 10' latitude/longitude data set of mean monthly sur- face climate over global land areas, excluding Antarctica The climatology includes 8 climate ele- ments —precipitation, wet-day frequency, temperature, diurnal temperature range, relative humid- ity, sunshine duration, ground frost frequency and windspeed—and was interpolated from a data set of station means for the period centred on 1961 to 1990 Precipitation was first defined in terms of the parameters of the Gamma distribution, enabling the calculation of monthly precipitation at any given return period The data are compared to an earlier data set at 05o latitude/longitude resolution and show added value over most regions The data will have many applications in applied climatology, biogeochemical modelling, hydrology and agricultural meteorology and are available through the International Water Management Institute World Water and Climate Atlas (http://wwwiwmiorg) and the Climatic Research Unit (http://wwwcruueaacuk)

2,206 citations


"Very high resolution interpolated c..." refers background or methods or result in this paper

  • ...We aggregated the climate surfaces to a 10 arc min resolution to illustrate the benefits of higher resolution surfaces and to compare our results to those of New et al. (2002)....

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  • ...25: 1965–1978 (2005) resolution was chosen because it is the highest resolution global climate data set that was available before our study (New et al., 2002) and in order to compare with that data set....

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  • ...Within-grid cell variation in elevation was evaluated by mapping the range of elevations of the 3 arc s resolution grid cells within each 30 arc s cell....

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  • ...Other differences are related to the use of a different set of weather stations, and, no doubt, to some residual errors in our data set and that of New et al. (2002)....

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  • ...Our surfaces have a 30 arc s spatial resolution; this is equivalent to about 0.86 km2 at the equator and less elsewhere and commonly referred to as ‘1-km’ resolution....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a 0.5° lat × 0. 5° long surface climatology of global land areas, excluding Antarctica, is described, which represents the period 1961-90 and comprises a suite of nine variables: precipitation, wet-day frequency, mean temperature, diurnal temperature range, vapor pressure, sunshine, cloud cover, ground frost frequency, and wind speed.
Abstract: The construction of a 0.5° lat × 0.5° long surface climatology of global land areas, excluding Antarctica, is described. The climatology represents the period 1961–90 and comprises a suite of nine variables: precipitation, wet-day frequency, mean temperature, diurnal temperature range, vapor pressure, sunshine, cloud cover, ground frost frequency, and wind speed. The climate surfaces have been constructed from a new dataset of station 1961–90 climatological normals, numbering between 19 800 (precipitation) and 3615 (wind speed). The station data were interpolated as a function of latitude, longitude, and elevation using thin-plate splines. The accuracy of the interpolations are assessed using cross validation and by comparison with other climatologies. This new climatology represents an advance over earlier published global terrestrial climatologies in that it is strictly constrained to the period 1961–90, describes an extended suite of surface climate variables, explicitly incorporates elevation...

1,880 citations


"Very high resolution interpolated c..." refers background or methods in this paper

  • ...For many applications, data at a fine (≤1 km2) spatial resolution are necessary to capture environmental variability that can be partly lost at lower resolutions, particularly in mountainous and other areas with steep climate gradients....

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  • ...We chose this method because it has been used in other global studies (New et al., 1999, 2002), performed well in comparative tests of multiple interpolation techniques (Hartkamp et al., 1999; Jarvis and Stuart, 2001), and because it is computationally efficient and easy to run....

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  • ...Leemans and Cramer (1991) and New et al. (1999) created important earlier data sets, at a spatial resolution of 0.5° (55.6 km at the equator)....

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  • ...This database includes monthly mean (3084 stations), minimum and maximum (both 2504 stations) temperature and precipitation (4261 stations)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a method for generating daily surfaces of temperature, precipitation, humidity, and radiation over large regions of complex terrain is presented, based on the spatial convolution of a truncated Gaussian weighting filter with the set of station locations.

1,309 citations


"Very high resolution interpolated c..." refers background or methods in this paper

  • ...…sets of high-resolution climate surfaces for the conterminous United States: the 1- km-resolution Daymet database of means for 1980–1997 (http://www.daymet.org/; Thornton et al., 1997) and the 2.5 arc min (∼5 km) PRISM climate database for 1970–2000 (http://www.ocs.orst.edu/; Daly et al., 2002)....

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  • ...Thornton et al. (1997) used a truncated Gaussian weighting filter in combination with spatially and temporally explicit empirically determined relationships of temperature and precipitation to elevation....

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  • ...…for the United * Correspondence to: Robert J. Hijmans, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building, Berkeley, CA, USA; e-mail: rhijmans@berkeley.edu Copyright 2005 Royal Meteorological Society States (http://www.daymet.org/; Thornton et al., 1997)....

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  • ...We then used SPLINA to build continuous climate surfaces for the training data and interrogated these surfaces for the locations of the test data....

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  • ...Weather station data were assembled from a large number of sources: (1) The Global Historical Climate Network Dataset (GHCN) version 2....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a knowledge-based framework for climate mapping using a statistical regression model known as PRISM (parameter-elevation regressions on independent slopes model).
Abstract: The demand for spatial climate data in digital form has risen dramatically in recent years. In response to this need, a variety of statistical techniques have been used to facilitate the pro- duction of GIS-compatible climate maps. However, observational data are often too sparse and unrepresentative to directly support the creation of high-quality climate maps and data sets that truly represent the current state of knowledge. An effective approach is to use the wealth of expert knowl- edge on the spatial patterns of climate and their relationships with geographic features, termed 'geospatial climatology', to help enhance, control, and parameterize a statistical technique. Described here is a dynamic knowledge-based framework that allows for the effective accumulation, application, and refinement of climatic knowledge, as expressed in a statistical regression model known as PRISM (parameter-elevation regressions on independent slopes model). The ultimate goal is to develop an expert system capable of reproducing the process a knowledgeable climatologist would use to create high-quality climate maps, with the added benefits of consistency and repeata- bility. However, knowledge must first be accumulated and evaluated through an ongoing process of model application; development of knowledge prototypes, parameters and parameter settings; test- ing; evaluation; and modification. This paper describes the current state of a knowledge-based framework for climate mapping and presents specific algorithms from PRISM to demonstrate how this framework is applied and refined to accommodate difficult climate mapping situations. A weighted climate-elevation regression function acknowledges the dominant influence of elevation on climate. Climate stations are assigned weights that account for other climatically important factors besides elevation. Aspect and topographic exposure, which affect climate at a variety of scales, from hill slope to windward and leeward sides of mountain ranges, are simulated by dividing the terrain into topographic facets. A coastal proximity measure is used to account for sharp climatic gradients near coastlines. A 2-layer model structure divides the atmosphere into a lower boundary layer and an upper free atmosphere layer, allowing the simulation of temperature inversions, as well as mid-slope precipitation maxima. The effectiveness of various terrain configurations at producing orographic precipitation enhancement is also estimated. Climate mapping examples are presented.

1,074 citations


"Very high resolution interpolated c..." refers background or methods in this paper

  • ...GHCN has data for precipitation (20 590 stations), mean temperature (7280 stations), and minimum and maximum temperature (4966 stations)....

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  • ...We then used SPLINA to build continuous climate surfaces for the training data and interrogated these surfaces for the locations of the test data....

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  • ...…sets of high-resolution climate surfaces for the conterminous United States: the 1- km-resolution Daymet database of means for 1980–1997 (http://www.daymet.org/; Thornton et al., 1997) and the 2.5 arc min (∼5 km) PRISM climate database for 1970–2000 (http://www.ocs.orst.edu/; Daly et al., 2002)....

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  • ...Daly et al. (2002) used the PRISM method, which allows for incorporation of expert knowledge about the climate and can be particularly useful when data points are sparse....

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