Vigilance Behaviour in Grazing African Antelopes
TL;DR: Time spent looking varied with position within the group; this effect was strongest in closed habitats, where central animals tended to scan least and feed most, and within species, animals inclosed habitats, those with dense vegetation, tended to spend more time in looking than did animals in the open.
Abstract: African antelope may devote a large proportion of their foraging time to looking around. The factors affecting such vigilance behaviour are examined for grazing antelope, five species being studied in detail. The proportion of time spent looking decreased as species body weight increased. Within species, animals in closed habitats, those with dense vegetation, tended to spend more time in looking than did animals in the open. There was some evidence that vigilance, presumably for predators, was shared by group members, but in one species, impala, vigilance apparently increased with group size and with proximity to neighbours. Time spent looking varied with position within the group; this effect was strongest in closed habitats, where central animals tended to scan least and feed most. Vigilance increased as feeding success decreased, partly due to mutual interference between looking and feeding. The possible social, foraging and predator-detection values of vigilance are discussed. A simple model is introduced to help explain the effects of cover and to facilitate further discussion.
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TL;DR: Ruminants seem to be crepuscular animals, and light provides an environmental cue as to when to seek food, yet it remains to be explained if this preference also reflects temporal variation in the underlying physiology.
57 citations
TL;DR: Average group size may be a useful index to forage abundance and continuity in mountain goats, and two-year-old goats, yearlings, and billies received more threatening displays than did other classes.
Abstract: Relationships between group size, intragroup spacing, movement rates, foraging behavior, and frequency of agonistic behavior of mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) using alpine tundra were examine...
56 citations
TL;DR: It is proposed that expanding coyote populations in the southeastern USA influence white-tailed deer numerically through predation of juveniles, and behaviorally by inducing antipredator responses that likely carry foraging costs.
Abstract: Costs associated with antipredator behaviors can have profound effects on prey populations. We investigated the effects of predation risk on white-tailed deer foraging behavior by manipulating predator distributions through exclusion while controlling for effects of habitat type. In 2003, we constructed predator exclosures on 4 of 8 approximately 40-ha study plots in southwestern Georgia, USA. We examined the seasonal and sex-specific effects of predator exclusion, and group size and composition on the behavioral state (i.e., feeding or vigilant) of foraging white-tailed deer at baited camera traps during 2011–2012. Predator exclusion resulted in a 5% increase in the time females spent feeding during the summer, concurrent with fawning; and 13.4% increase in the time males spent feeding during winter, while in postrut condition. Males were more vigilant than females and demonstrated a stronger response to predator exclusion. Males showed no response to group size or composition, whereas females and juveniles decreased foraging when males were present during the summer. Our results suggest that white-tailed deer alter vigilance levels in response to predator distributions independent of habitat cues. We propose that expanding coyote populations in the southeastern USA influence white-tailed deer numerically through predation of juveniles, and behaviorally by inducing antipredator responses that likely carry foraging costs. This emerging predator–prey dynamic may have strong nonconsumptive effects on naive white-tailed deer populations that experienced little nonanthropogenic predation risk for decades.
56 citations
TL;DR: Caribou, like several other species of ungulates, show behavioural adaptations to the risk of predation which are relaxed when this risk is reduced, and what caribou perceive as a predator-safe threshold differs in the two areas.
Abstract: Behaviour of female caribou (Rangifer tarandus) was investigated during the calving season on ranges in Alaska and West Greenland with the purpose of determining whether investment in vigilance behaviour differed between areas with and without natural predators of caribou. Female caribou in Alaska foraged in larger groups, displayed a higher rate of vigilance during feeding, spent less time feeding and, when lying, more often adopted a vigilant posture (with head up) than did female caribou in West Greenland. Moreover, a predation-vulnerable posture of lying down flat was observed in West Greenland but not in Alaska. Within Alaska, females with calves spent more time searching the environment than did those without calves. Finally, the amount of time individuals spent searching declined more gradually with group size in Alaska than in West Greenland, suggesting that what caribou perceive as a predator-safe threshold differs in the two areas. These results indicate that caribou, like several other species of ungulates, show behavioural adaptations to the risk of predation which are relaxed when this risk is reduced.
56 citations
01 Jan 1997
TL;DR: As revealed by principal components analysis, calves tended to spend more time lying and standing and less time feeding than other age–sex classes, and males in bachelor groups tended to feed more and rest less than males in mixed herds.
Abstract: Synchrony of activities and time budgets of age-sex classes of muskoxen (Ovibos moschutus) was studied on Victoria Island in the Canadian High Arctic during late winter (April - late May), spring (late May - early June) and summer (mid-June - July). As revealed by the kappa (x) coefficient of agreement, herd members exhibited significant synchrony in 79 of 82 The degree of synchrony was not related to group size in mixed herds but decreased with group size in bachelor herds. Diversity in age-sex classes, group type (mixed versus bachelor), and season did not affect synchrony. However, synchrony was less among adult males than among other age-sex classes. Muskoxen were more synchronised at the start of activity bouts than at the end. As revealed by principal components analysis, calves tended to spend more time lying and standing and less time feeding than other age-sex classes. In addition, males in bachelor groups tended to feed more and rest less than males in mixed herds. Duration of active and lying bouts was not affected by age-sex class. Length of active bouts did not change with season, but lying bouts decreased in length significantly from late winter to spring and from spring to summer. We suggest that synchrony of activities maintains group cohesion but constrains the time budget of some group members, especially adult males. RCsumC : La synchronisation des activitCs et les budgets temporels des diffkrentes classes d'iige-sexe du Boeuf musquC (Ovibos moschutus) ont CtC CtudiCs i I'ile Victoria, dans le haut arctique canadien, i la fin de l'hiver (avril - fin mai), au printemps (fin mai - dCbut juin) et i I'CtC (mi juin - juillet). A I'aide de la statistique de kappa (x), nous avons montrC que les membres des groupes Ctaient significativement synchronisCs dans 79 des 82 groupes observCs. Le degrC de synchronisation n'Ctait pas influenck par la taille du groupe dans les hardes mixtes mais diminuait avec la taille du groupe dans les hardes de miles. Les classes d'iige-sexe, le type de groupe (rnixte versus miles) et la saison n'ont pas affect6 la synchronisation. Toutefois, les miles adultes Ctaient moins synchronisCs entre eux que les autres classes d'ige-sexe. Les boeufs musquCs Ctaient plus synchronisCs au dCbut des pCriodes d'activitC qu'i la fin. Tel que rCvClC par I'analyse des composantes principales, les veaux avaient tendance i passer plus de temps en repos et stationnaires debout, et moins de temps i se nourrir, que les autres classes d'ige-sexe. De plus, les miles dans les groupes composCs uniquement de miles semblaient se nourrir davantage et se reposer moins que les miles dans les groupes mixtes. La durCe des pCriodes d'activitk et de repos n'Ctait pas affectCe par les classes d'ige-sexe. La durCe des pCriodes d'activitks ne variait pas selon la saison mais la dude des pCriodes de repos diminuait de la fin de l'hiver au printemps et du printemps i I'CtC. Nous proposons en hypothkse que la synchronisation des activitks maintient la cohCsion de la harde mais contraint le budget temporel de certains membres du groupe, spkcialement les miles adultes
55 citations
Cites background from "Vigilance Behaviour in Grazing Afri..."
...Larger animal groups are generally more efficient at detecting and defending themselves against predators (Bertram 1978; Underwood 1982; Turner and Pitcher 1986; Heard 1992), and larger body size usually imparts superior defensive capabilities, even for small groups or single animals (cf....
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References
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TL;DR: Seven major types of sampling for observational studies of social behavior have been found in the literature and the major strengths and weaknesses of each method are pointed out.
Abstract: Seven major types of sampling for observational studies of social behavior have been found in the literature. These methods differ considerably in their suitability for providing unbiased data of various kinds. Below is a summary of the major recommended uses of each technique: In this paper, I have tried to point out the major strengths and weaknesses of each sampling method. Some methods are intrinsically biased with respect to many variables, others to fewer. In choosing a sampling method the main question is whether the procedure results in a biased sample of the variables under study. A method can produce a biased sample directly, as a result of intrinsic bias with respect to a study variable, or secondarily due to some degree of dependence (correlation) between the study variable and a directly-biased variable. In order to choose a sampling technique, the observer needs to consider carefully the characteristics of behavior and social interactions that are relevant to the study population and the research questions at hand. In most studies one will not have adequate empirical knowledge of the dependencies between relevant variables. Under the circumstances, the observer should avoid intrinsic biases to whatever extent possible, in particular those that direcly affect the variables under study. Finally, it will often be possible to use more than one sampling method in a study. Such samples can be taken successively or, under favorable conditions, even concurrently. For example, we have found it possible to take Instantaneous Samples of the identities and distances of nearest neighbors of a focal individual at five or ten minute intervals during Focal-Animal (behavior) Samples on that individual. Often during Focal-Animal Sampling one can also record All Occurrences of Some Behaviors, for the whole social group, for categories of conspicuous behavior, such as predation, intergroup contact, drinking, and so on. The extent to which concurrent multiple sampling is feasible will depend very much on the behavior categories and rate of occurrence, the observational conditions, etc. Where feasible, such multiple sampling can greatly aid in the efficient use of research time.
12,470 citations
TL;DR: An antithesis to the view that gregarious behaviour is evolved through benefits to the population or species is presented, and simply defined models are used to show that even in non-gregarious species selection is likely to favour individuals who stay close to others.
3,343 citations
Additional excerpts
...The 'selfish herd' (HAMILTON, 1971)...
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TL;DR: The paper describes different feeding styles among antelope, in terms of selection of food items and coverage of home ranges, and argues that these feeding styles bear a relationship to maximum group size of feeding animals through the influence of dispersion ofFood items upon group cohesion.
Abstract: The types of social organisation displayed by the African antelope species have been assigned in this paper to five classes, distinguished largely by the strategies used by the reproductively active males in securing mating rights, and the effects of those strategies on other social castes. The paper attempts to show that these strategies are appropriate to each class because of the effects of other, ecological, aspects of their ways of life. The paper describes different feeding styles among antelope, in terms of selection of food items and coverage of home ranges. It argues that these feeding styles bear a relationship to maximum group size of feeding animals through the influence of dispersion of food items upon group cohesion. The feeding styles also bear a relationship to body size and to habitat choice, both of which influence the antelope species' antipredator behaviour. Thus feeding style is related to anti-predator behaviour which, in many species, influences minimum group size. Group size and the pattern of movement over the annual home range affect the likelihood of females being found in a given place at a given time, and it is this likelihood which, to a large extent, determines the kind of strategy a male must employ to achieve mating rights. The effects of the different strategies employed by males can be seen in such aspects of each species' biology as sexual dimorphism, adult sex ratio, and differential distribution of the sexes.
2,088 citations
"Vigilance Behaviour in Grazing Afri..." refers background in this paper
...Such habitat differences may have influenced the evolution of social and anti-predator behaviour in antelope (GEIST, 1974; JARMAN, 1974; ESTES, 1974) and may also affect both predator and prey behaviour on a day to day basis (SCHALLER, 1972; KRUUK, 1972; CURIO, 1976; EDMUNDS, 1974)....
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...If scanning reduces predation, it may take up less of the large animals' time either because both the number and the range of potential predators are smaller (JARMAN, 1974; GEIST, 1974), or because these antelope, being found in large groups, either are (a) less easy for a predator to find, (b) share vigilance with other group members (CARACAO et al....
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...The smaller and, according to JARMAN (1974), the more selective species are those which show significant correlations between the rate of looking and indices of feeding success, supporting the possibility that scanning forms a part of foraging behaviour....
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1,193 citations
Book•
21 Sep 1976
TL;DR: This chapter discusses hunting for Prey, the Diversity of Hunting Methods, and the Motivation Underlying Feeding Responses of Predator-Prey Interactions.
Abstract: 1 Internal Factors.- A. Hunger: Expression through Overt behavior.- I. Predatory Schedules.- 1. Patterns of Satiation.- 2. Feast and Famine.- II. Hunger and Diel Rhythms.- III. The Ramification of Hunger Effects.- 1. Capture-eliciting Prey Stimuli.- 2. Search behavior.- IV. The Motivation Underlying Feeding Responses.- 1. Hunger Thresholds of Feeding Response Components.- 2. The Complexity of Predatory Motivation.- V. The Diversity of Foraging Tactics.- VI. Feeding Components Affected and not Affected by Hunger.- B. The Control of Feeding Responses by Factors Other than Hunger.- I. The Readiness to Hunt.- II. Prey Storing.- III. Providing Food for Dependent Family Members.- C. The Problem of Specific Hungers.- I. Switching of Prey.- II. The Prey-density Predation Curve.- III. Swamping the Appetite of Predators.- D. Daily and Annual Rhythms in Predator-Prey Interactions.- I. Daily Rhythm of Predation.- II. Daily Activity Patterns of the Prey.- III. Annual Rhythm of Predation.- 2 Searching for Prey.- A. Path of Searching and Scanning Movements.- B. Area-concentrated Search.- I. Short-term Area Concentration.- 1. Living Scattered and Area-concentrated Search.- 2. The Nature of the Path Changes.- 3. Search Behavior after the Disappearance of Prey.- II. Long-term Area Concentration.- III. One-prey : One-place Association.- C. Object-concentrated Search.- I. Existence and Properties of "Searching Image".- 1. Ecological Evidence.- 2. Experimental Evidence.- II. Social Facilitation of Searching Image Formation.- III. Searching Image and "Training Bias".- IV. Searching Image and Profitability of Hunting.- 1. Ecological Evidence for Profitability of Hunting.- 2. Experimental Evidence for Profitability of Hunting.- V. Prey-specific Expectation.- VI. Ecological Implications of Searching Image.- 3 Prey Recognition.- A. The Stimulus-specificity of Prey Capture.- I. Capture-eliciting Prey Stimuli.- II. Capture-inhibiting Prey Stimuli.- B. One-prey : One-response Relationships.- C. The Assessment of the Circumstances of a Hunt.- D. Prey Recognition by Prey-related Signals.- E. Prey Stimulus Summation.- F. Novelty Versus Familiarity.- I. The Rejection of Novel Prey.- II. Familiarization with Prey and Its Consequences.- G. The Multi-channel Hypothesis of Prey Recognition.- 4 Prey Selection.- A. Preying upon the Weak and the Sick.- B. Preying upon the Odd and the Conspicuous.- C. The Mechanics of Prey Selection.- D. Evolutionary Implications.- 5 Hunting for Prey.- A. Modes of Hunting.- I. Hunting by Speculation.- II. Stalking and Ambushing.- 1. Stalking.- 2. Ambushing.- III. Prey Attack under Disguise.- IV. Pursuit of the Prey.- 1. Changes of Velocity of Attack (Pursuit).- 2. Interception of the Flight Path.- 3. Counteradaptations of the Prey.- V. Exhausting Dangerous Prey.- VI. Insinuation.- VII. Scavenging and Cleptoparasitism.- 1. Modes and Extent.- 2. Cleptoparasitism and Competition.- 3. Counter-measures of the Robbed.- VIII. Tool-use.- IX. Mutilation.- B. The Diversity of Hunting Methods.- I. Prey-specific Methods.- II. Situation-specific Methods.- III. Mechanisms and Causes of Predatory Versatility.- 1. General.- 2. Individual Predatory Repertories.- 3. The Persistence of Individual Traits.- 4. Predatory Specialization and Structural Modification.- 5. Predatory Versatility in Relation to Prey Availability.- C. Behavioral Aspects of Hunting Success.- I. A Comparison of Hunting Success across Predator Species.- II. Variables Influencing Hunting Success within Predator Species.- III. Aspects of Communal Hunting.- 1. Modes and Properties of Communal Hunting.- 2. Factors Conducive to Communal Hunting.- 3. Benefits of Communal Hunting.- References.- Scientific Names of Animals and Plants.
919 citations
"Vigilance Behaviour in Grazing Afri..." refers background in this paper
...Such habitat differences may have influenced the evolution of social and anti-predator behaviour in antelope (GEIST, 1974; JARMAN, 1974; ESTES, 1974) and may also affect both predator and prey behaviour on a day to day basis (SCHALLER, 1972; KRUUK, 1972; CURIO, 1976; EDMUNDS, 1974)....
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