Water Management Challenges Associated with the Production of Shale Gas by Hydraulic Fracturing
TL;DR: Water management has emerged as a critical issue in the development of these inland gas reservoirs, where hydraulic fracturing is used to liberate the gas as discussed by the authors, where large volumes of water containing very high concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) return to the surface.
Abstract: Development of unconventional, onshore natural gas resources in deep shales is rapidly expanding to meet global energy needs. Water management has emerged as a critical issue in the development of these inland gas reservoirs, where hydraulic fracturing is used to liberate the gas. Following hydraulic fracturing, large volumes of water containing very high concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) return to the surface. The TDS concentration in this wastewater, also known as “flowback,” can reach 5 times that of sea water. Wastewaters that contain high TDS levels are challenging and costly to treat. Economical production of shale gas resources will require creative management of flowback to ensure protection of groundwater and surface water resources. Currently, deep-well injection is the primary means of management. However, in many areas where shale gas production will be abundant, deep-well injection sites are not available. With global concerns over the quality and quantity of fresh water, novel water management strategies and treatment technologies that will enable environmentally sustainable and economically feasible natural gas extraction will be critical for the development of this vast energy source.
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TL;DR: In this article, molecular-level design approaches for membrane materials, focusing on how these materials address the urgent requirements of water treatment applications, are reviewed for water scarcity and the pollution of aquatic environments.
Abstract: Membranes have an increasingly important role in alleviating water scarcity and the pollution of aquatic environments. Promising molecular-level design approaches are reviewed for membrane materials, focusing on how these materials address the urgent requirements of water treatment applications.
1,900 citations
TL;DR: Improved understanding of the fate and transport of contaminants of concern and increased long-term monitoring and data dissemination will help effectively manage water-quality risks associated with unconventional gas industry today and in the future.
Abstract: Unconventional natural gas resources offer an opportunity to access a relatively clean fossil fuel that could potentially lead to energy independence for some countries. Horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing make the extraction of tightly bound natural gas from shale formations economically feasible. These technologies are not free from environmental risks, however, especially those related to regional water quality, such as gas migration, contaminant transport through induced and natural fractures, wastewater discharge, and accidental spills. We review the current understanding of environmental issues associated with unconventional gas extraction. Improved understanding of the fate and transport of contaminants of concern and increased long-term monitoring and data dissemination will help manage these water-quality risks today and in the future.
1,263 citations
Cites background from "Water Management Challenges Associa..."
...Reuse of wastewater minimizes the volume that must be treated and disposed, thus reducing environmental control costs and risks and enhancing the economic feasibility of shale-gas extraction (67)....
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...strategies for this wastewater are constrained by regulations, economics of implementation, technology performance, geologic setting, and final disposal alternatives (67)....
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TL;DR: Analysis of published data reveals evidence for stray gas contamination, surface water impacts in areas of intensive shale gas development, and the accumulation of radium isotopes in some disposal and spill sites.
Abstract: The rapid rise of shale gas development through horizontal drilling and high volume hydraulic fracturing has expanded the extraction of hydrocarbon resources in the U.S. The rise of shale gas development has triggered an intense public debate regarding the potential environmental and human health effects from hydraulic fracturing. This paper provides a critical review of the potential risks that shale gas operations pose to water resources, with an emphasis on case studies mostly from the U.S. Four potential risks for water resources are identified: (1) the contamination of shallow aquifers with fugitive hydrocarbon gases (i.e., stray gas contamination), which can also potentially lead to the salinization of shallow groundwater through leaking natural gas wells and subsurface flow; (2) the contamination of surface water and shallow groundwater from spills, leaks, and/or the disposal of inadequately treated shale gas wastewater; (3) the accumulation of toxic and radioactive elements in soil or stream sediments near disposal or spill sites; and (4) the overextraction of water resources for high-volume hydraulic fracturing that could induce water shortages or conflicts with other water users, particularly in water-scarce areas. Analysis of published data (through January 2014) reveals evidence for stray gas contamination, surface water impacts in areas of intensive shale gas development, and the accumulation of radium isotopes in some disposal and spill sites. The direct contamination of shallow groundwater from hydraulic fracturing fluids and deep formation waters by hydraulic fracturing itself, however, remains controversial.
1,255 citations
TL;DR: The effect of halides on organic contaminant destruction efficiency was compared for UV/H2O2 and UV/S2O8(2-) AOP treatments of saline waters; benzoic acid, 3-cyclohexene-1-carboxylic acid, and cyclohexanecarboxy Lic acid were used as models for aromatic, alkene, and alkane constituents of naphthenic acids in oil-field waters.
Abstract: The effect of halides on organic contaminant destruction efficiency was compared for UV/H2O2 and UV/S2O82– AOP treatments of saline waters; benzoic acid, 3-cyclohexene-1-carboxylic acid, and cyclohexanecarboxylic acid were used as models for aromatic, alkene, and alkane constituents of naphthenic acids in oil-field waters. In model freshwater, contaminant degradation was higher by UV/S2O82– because of the higher quantum efficiency for S2O82– than H2O2 photolysis. The conversion of •OH and SO4•– radicals to less reactive halogen radicals in the presence of seawater halides reduced the degradation efficiency of benzoic acid and cyclohexanecarboxylic acid. The UV/S2O82– AOP was more affected by Cl– than the UV/H2O2 AOP because oxidation of Cl– is more favorable by SO4•– than •OH at pH 7. Degradation of 3-cyclohexene-1-carboxylic acid, was not affected by halides, likely because of the high reactivity of halogen radicals with alkenes. Despite its relatively low concentration in saline waters compared to Cl–, ...
735 citations
TL;DR: This Progress Article highlights continuing developments and identifies future opportunities in scalable membrane materials based on rigid, engineered pore structures, for both gas and liquid phase applications.
Abstract: Materials research is key to enable synthetic membranes for large-scale, energy-efficient molecular separations. Materials with rigid, engineered pore structures add an additional degree of freedom to create advanced membranes by providing entropically moderated selectivities. Scalability - the capability to efficiently and economically pack membranes into practical modules - is a critical yet often neglected factor to take into account for membrane materials screening. In this Progress Article, we highlight continuing developments and identify future opportunities in scalable membrane materials based on these rigid features, for both gas and liquid phase applications. These advanced materials open the door to a new generation of membrane processes beyond existing materials and approaches.
734 citations
References
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TL;DR: Major research efforts in the future could focus on the optimization of current technologies and use of combined physico-chemical and/or biological treatment of produced water in order to comply with reuse and discharge limits.
1,862 citations
16 Feb 2004
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide basic information on many aspects of produced water, including its constituents, how much of it is generated, how it is managed and regulated in different settings, and the cost of its management.
Abstract: One of the key missions of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is to ensure an abundant and affordable energy supply for the nation. As part of the process of producing oil and natural gas, operators also must manage large quantities of water that are found in the same underground formations. The quantity of this water, known as produced water, generated each year is so large that it represents a significant component in the cost of producing oil and gas. Produced water is water trapped in underground formations that is brought to the surface along with oil or gas. It is by far the largest volume byproduct or waste stream associated with oil and gas production. Management of produced water presents challenges and costs to operators. This white paper is intended to provide basic information on many aspects of produced water, including its constituents, how much of it is generated, how it is managed and regulated in different settings, and the cost of its management.
614 citations
TL;DR: Tapping the lucrative Marcellus Shale natural gas deposits may have a host of environmental concerns, according to a report by the USGS.
Abstract: Tapping the lucrative Marcellus Shale natural gas deposits may have a host of environmental concerns.
585 citations
"Water Management Challenges Associa..." refers background in this paper
...Past experience with produced and fl owback waters is used to guide developers towards treatment and management options in regions of new production (Kargbo et al. 2010)....
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...…detected ELEMENTS JUNE 2011184 composition of the fl owback water, there is growing public concern about management of this water because of the potential for human health and environmental impacts associated with an accidental release of fl owback water into the environment (Kargbo et al. 2010)....
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...Flowback water management options for some shale plays, such as the Marcellus, are confounded by high concentrations of total dissolved solids in the fl owback water, geography, geology, and a lack of physical infrastructure (Arthur et al. 2008; Kargbo et al. 2010)....
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01 Sep 2009
TL;DR: The U.S. Department of Energy asked Argonne National Laboratory to compile data on produced water associated with oil and gas production to better understand the production volumes and management of this water as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Produced water volume generation and management in the United States are not well characterized at a national level. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) asked Argonne National Laboratory to compile data on produced water associated with oil and gas production to better understand the production volumes and management of this water. The purpose of this report is to improve understanding of produced water by providing detailed information on the volume of produced water generated in the United States and the ways in which produced water is disposed or reused. As the demand for fresh water resources increases, with no concomitant increase in surface or ground water supplies, alternate water sources, like produced water, may play an important role. Produced water is water from underground formations that is brought to the surface during oil or gas production. Because the water has been in contact with hydrocarbon-bearing formations, it contains some of the chemical characteristics of the formations and the hydrocarbons. It may include water from the reservoir, water previously injected into the formation, and any chemicals added during the production processes. The physical and chemical properties of produced water vary considerably depending on the geographic location of the field, the geologic formation, and the type of hydrocarbon product being produced. Produced water properties and volume also vary throughout the lifetime of a reservoir. Produced water is the largest volume by-product or waste stream associated with oil and gas exploration and production. Previous national produced water volume estimates are in the range of 15 to 20 billion barrels (bbl; 1 bbl = 42 U.S. gallons) generated each year in the United States (API 1988, 2000; Veil et al. 2004). However, the details on generation and management of produced water are not well understood on a national scale. Argonne National Laboratory developed detailed national-level information on the volume of produced water generated in the United States and the manner in which produced water is managed. This report presents an overview of produced water, summarizes the study, and presents results from the study at both the national level and the state level. Chapter 2 presents background information on produced water, describing its chemical and physical characteristics, where it is produced, and the potential impacts of produced water to the environment and to oil and gas operations. A review of relevant literature is also included. Chapter 3 describes the methods used to collect information, including outreach efforts to state oil and gas agencies and related federal programs. Because of the inconsistency in the level of detail provided by various state agencies, the approaches and assumptions used to extrapolate data values are also discussed. In Chapter 4, the data are presented, and national trends and observations are discussed. Chapter 5 presents detailed results for each state, while Chapter 6 presents results from federal sources for oil and gas production (i.e., offshore, onshore, and tribal lands). Chapter 7 summarizes the study and presents conclusions.
431 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compare greenhouse gas (GHG), SOx, and NOx life-cycle emissions of electricity generated with NG/LNG/SNG and coal and show that with the current fleet of power plants, a mix of domestic NG, LNG, and SNG would have lower GHG emissions than coal.
Abstract: The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) estimates that in the coming decades the United States' natural gas (NG) demand for electricity generation will increase. Estimates also suggest that NG supply will increasingly come from imported liquefied natural gas (LNG). Additional supplies of NG could come domestically from the production of synthetic natural gas (SNG) via coal gasification−methanation. The objective of this study is to compare greenhouse gas (GHG), SOx, and NOx life-cycle emissions of electricity generated with NG/LNG/SNG and coal. This life-cycle comparison of air emissions from different fuels can help us better understand the advantages and disadvantages of using coal versus globally sourced NG for electricity generation. Our estimates suggest that with the current fleet of power plants, a mix of domestic NG, LNG, and SNG would have lower GHG emissions than coal. If advanced technologies with carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) are used, however, coal and a mix of domestic NG, LNG, and SNG ...
329 citations