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Journal Article•DOI•

What is a case-control study?

Tom Marshall1•
University of Birmingham1
01 Jun 2004-International Journal of Epidemiology (Oxford University Press)-Vol. 33, Iss: 3, pp 612-613
About: This article is published in International Journal of Epidemiology.The article was published on 2004-06-01 and is currently open access. It has received 5872 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: MEDLINE & Cohort study.
Citations
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Journal Article•DOI•
Pathogenic Escherichia coli

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James B. Kaper1, James P. Nataro1, Harry L. T. Mobley1•
University of Maryland, Baltimore1
01 Feb 2004-Nature Reviews Microbiology
TL;DR: Few microorganisms are as versatile as Escherichia coli; it can also be a highly versatile, and frequently deadly, pathogen.
Abstract: Few microorganisms are as versatile as Escherichia coli. An important member of the normal intestinal microflora of humans and other mammals, E. coli has also been widely exploited as a cloning host in recombinant DNA technology. But E. coli is more than just a laboratory workhorse or harmless intestinal inhabitant; it can also be a highly versatile, and frequently deadly, pathogen. Several different E. coli strains cause diverse intestinal and extraintestinal diseases by means of virulence factors that affect a wide range of cellular processes.

4,583 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19.

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Aakriti Gupta1, Aakriti Gupta2, Mahesh V. Madhavan1, Kartik Sehgal3, Kartik Sehgal4, Nandini Nair1, Shiwani Mahajan2, Tejasav S. Sehrawat5, Behnood Bikdeli1, Behnood Bikdeli2, Neha Ahluwalia6, John C. Ausiello1, Elaine Wan1, Daniel E. Freedberg1, Ajay J. Kirtane, Sahil A. Parikh1, Mathew S. Maurer1, Anna S. Nordvig7, Domenico Accili1, Joan M. Bathon1, Sumit Mohan1, Kenneth A. Bauer3, Kenneth A. Bauer4, Martin B. Leon1, Harlan M. Krumholz2, Nir Uriel1, Mandeep R. Mehra8, Mitchell S.V. Elkind7, Mitchell S.V. Elkind1, Gregg W. Stone6, Allan Schwartz1, David D. Ho9, John P. Bilezikian1, Donald W. Landry1 •
Columbia University1, Yale University2, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center3, Harvard University4, Mayo Clinic5, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai6, NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital7, Brigham and Women's Hospital8, Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center9
10 Jul 2020-Nature Medicine
TL;DR: The extrapulmonary organ-specific pathophysiology, presentations and management considerations for patients with COVID-19 are reviewed to aid clinicians and scientists in recognizing and monitoring the spectrum of manifestations, and in developing research priorities and therapeutic strategies for all organ systems involved.
Abstract: Although COVID-19 is most well known for causing substantial respiratory pathology, it can also result in several extrapulmonary manifestations. These conditions include thrombotic complications, myocardial dysfunction and arrhythmia, acute coronary syndromes, acute kidney injury, gastrointestinal symptoms, hepatocellular injury, hyperglycemia and ketosis, neurologic illnesses, ocular symptoms, and dermatologic complications. Given that ACE2, the entry receptor for the causative coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, is expressed in multiple extrapulmonary tissues, direct viral tissue damage is a plausible mechanism of injury. In addition, endothelial damage and thromboinflammation, dysregulation of immune responses, and maladaptation of ACE2-related pathways might all contribute to these extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19. Here we review the extrapulmonary organ-specific pathophysiology, presentations and management considerations for patients with COVID-19 to aid clinicians and scientists in recognizing and monitoring the spectrum of manifestations, and in developing research priorities and therapeutic strategies for all organ systems involved.

2,113 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: Systematic review of the current evidence.

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Nina Vindegaard1, Michael E. Benros2, Michael E. Benros1•
Centre for Mental Health1, University of Copenhagen2
30 May 2020-Brain Behavior and Immunity
TL;DR: Research evaluating the direct neuropsychiatric consequences and the indirect effects on mental health is highly needed to improve treatment, mental health care planning and for preventive measures during potential subsequent pandemics.
Abstract: Background During the COVID-19 pandemic general medical complications have received the most attention, whereas only few studies address the potential direct effect on mental health of SARS-CoV-2 and the neurotropic potential. Furthermore, the indirect effects of the pandemic on general mental health are of increasing concern, particularly since the SARS-CoV-1 epidemic (2002–2003) was associated with psychiatric complications.

2,018 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Low-level environmental lead exposure and children's intellectual function: an international pooled analysis.

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Bruce P. Lanphear1, Richard W. Hornung2, Richard W. Hornung1, Jane Khoury2, Jane Khoury1, Kimberly Yolton1, Peter A. Baghurst3, David C. Bellinger4, Richard L. Canfield5, Kim N. Dietrich1, Kim N. Dietrich2, Robert L. Bornschein2, Tom Greene6, Stephen J. Rothenberg7, Herbert L. Needleman8, Lourdes Schnaas, Gail A. Wasserman9, Joseph H. Graziano9, Russell Roberts10 •
Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center1, University of Cincinnati2, Boston Children's Hospital3, Harvard University4, Cornell University5, Cleveland Clinic6, Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science7, University of Pittsburgh8, Columbia University9, Griffith University10
01 Jul 2005-Environmental Health Perspectives
TL;DR: Environmental lead exposure in children who have maximal blood lead levels < 7.5 μg/dL is associated with intellectual deficits, and an inverse relationship between blood lead concentration and IQ score is found.
Abstract: Lead is a confirmed neurotoxin, but questions remain about lead-associated intellectual deficits at blood lead levels < 10 µg/dL and whether lower exposures are, for a given change in exposure, associated with greater deficits. The objective of this study was to examine the association of intelligence test scores and blood lead concentration, especially for children who had maximal measured blood lead levels < 10 µg/dL. We examined data collected from 1,333 children who participated in seven international population-based longitudinal cohort studies, followed from birth or infancy until 5‐10 years of age. The full-scale IQ score was the primary outcome measure. The geometric mean blood lead concentration of the children peaked at 17.8 µg/dL and declined to 9.4 µg/dL by 5‐7 years of age; 244 (18%) children had a maximal blood lead concentration < 10 µg/dL, and 103 (8%) had a maximal blood lead concentration < 7.5 µg/dL. After adjustment for covariates, we found an inverse relationship between blood lead concentration and IQ score. Using a loglinear model, we found a 6.9 IQ point decrement [95% confidence interval (CI), 4.2‐9.4] associated with an increase in concurrent blood lead levels from 2.4 to 30 µg/dL. The estimated IQ point decrements associated with an increase in blood lead from 2.4 to 10 µg/dL, 10 to 20 µg/dL, and 20 to 30 µg/dL were 3.9 (95% CI, 2.4‐5.3), 1.9 (95% CI, 1.2‐2.6), and 1.1 (95% CI, 0.7‐1.5), respectively. For a given increase in blood lead, the lead-associated intellectual decrement for children with a maximal blood lead level < 7.5 µg/dL was significantly greater than that observed for those with a maximal blood lead level ≥ 7.5 µg/dL (p = 0.015). We conclude that environmental lead exposure in children who have maximal blood lead levels < 7.5 µg/dL is asso

1,945 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Radical causes of cancer

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S. Perwez Hussain1, Lorne J. Hofseth1, Curtis C. Harris1•
National Institutes of Health1
01 Apr 2003-Nature Reviews Cancer
TL;DR: Understanding the association between chronic inflammation and cancer provides insights into the molecular mechanisms involved and highlights the interaction between nitric oxide and p53 as a crucial pathway in inflammatory-mediated carcinogenesis.
Abstract: Free radicals are ubiquitous in our body and are generated by normal physiological processes, including aerobic metabolism and inflammatory responses, to eliminate invading pathogenic microorganisms. Because free radicals can also inflict cellular damage, several defences have evolved both to protect our cells from radicals--such as antioxidant scavengers and enzymes--and to repair DNA damage. Understanding the association between chronic inflammation and cancer provides insights into the molecular mechanisms involved. In particular, we highlight the interaction between nitric oxide and p53 as a crucial pathway in inflammatory-mediated carcinogenesis.

1,619 citations

References
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Journal Article•DOI•
Applied Logistic Regression.

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A. J. Scott, David W. Hosmer, Stanley Lemeshow
01 Dec 1991-Biometrics
TL;DR: Applied Logistic Regression, Third Edition provides an easily accessible introduction to the logistic regression model and highlights the power of this model by examining the relationship between a dichotomous outcome and a set of covariables.
Abstract: \"A new edition of the definitive guide to logistic regression modeling for health science and other applicationsThis thoroughly expanded Third Edition provides an easily accessible introduction to the logistic regression (LR) model and highlights the power of this model by examining the relationship between a dichotomous outcome and a set of covariables. Applied Logistic Regression, Third Edition emphasizes applications in the health sciences and handpicks topics that best suit the use of modern statistical software. The book provides readers with state-of-the-art techniques for building, interpreting, and assessing the performance of LR models. New and updated features include: A chapter on the analysis of correlated outcome data. A wealth of additional material for topics ranging from Bayesian methods to assessing model fit Rich data sets from real-world studies that demonstrate each method under discussion. Detailed examples and interpretation of the presented results as well as exercises throughout Applied Logistic Regression, Third Edition is a must-have guide for professionals and researchers who need to model nominal or ordinal scaled outcome variables in public health, medicine, and the social sciences as well as a wide range of other fields and disciplines\"--

30,190 citations

"What is a case-control study?" refers methods in this paper

  • ...The interactions were evaluated with the Wald chi-square and the score and likelihood ratio tests (SAS, 1995; Hosmer and Lemeshow, 2000)....

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  • ...The result was confirmed by the stepwise likelihood ratio chi-square and the score statistic, both of which are more appropriate than the Wald test for evaluating sequential and hierarchical structures (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2000; Hosmer and Lemeshow, 2000)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects

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Gary H. McClelland1, Charles M. Judd•
University of Colorado Boulder1
01 Sep 1993-Psychological Bulletin
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that the differential efficiency of experimental and field tests of interactions is also attributable to the differential residual variances of such interactions once the component main effects have been partialed out.
Abstract: Although interaction effects are frequently found in experimental studies, field researchers report considerable difficulty in finding theorized moderator effects. Previous discussions of this discrepancy have considered responsible factors including differences in measurement error and use of nonlinear scales. In this article we demonstrate that the differential efficiency of experimental and field tests of interactions is also attributable to the differential residual variances of such interactions once the component main effects have been partialed out. We derive an expression for this residual variance in terms of the joint distribution of the component variables and explore how properties of the distribution affect the efficiency of tests of moderator effects. We show that tests of interactions in field studies will often have less than 20% of the efficiency of optimal experimental tests, and we discuss implications for the design of field studies.

3,123 citations

"What is a case-control study?" refers background in this paper

  • ...Even under ideal circumstances, however, the statistical power is much lower for detecting interactions than for main effects (Breslow, 1980; McClelland and Judd, 1993)....

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  • ...Although not significant, tests of interaction, particularly in the presence of multicollinearity, tend to have low sensitivity (McClelland and Judd, 1993)....

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Book•
Regression and Linear Models

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Richard B. Darlington
01 Jan 1990
TL;DR: The course syllabus as discussed by the authors presents a survey of regression, linear models, and experimental design, including simple and multiple linear regression, single-and multi-factor studies, analysis of variance and covariance, model selection, diagnostics.
Abstract: Students are responsible for being familiar with this syllabus, and with the contents of both the above and the Owl Space website, and follow the postings as the course proceeds. A survey of regression, linear models, and experimental design. Topics include simple and multiple linear regression, single-and multi-factor studies, analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, model selection, diagnostics. Data analysis using statistical software is emphasized. STAT 615 is the graduate level version of STAT 410. Software: We will work with R: www.r-project.org The information contained in the course syllabus, other than the absence policies, may be subject to change with reasonable advance notice as deemed appropriate by the instructor.

973 citations

"What is a case-control study?" refers methods in this paper

  • ...Although all analyses centered the BAC values to reduce multicollinearity (Darlington, 1990), it remained high between some of the polynomial components, and that condition led to increased standard errors of the parameter estimates (Cohen and Cohen, 1983)....

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  • ...Improved fit of response surfaces can sometimes be obtained through use of piece-wise regression models known as splines and polynomial splines (Darlington, 1990; Stone and Koo, 1985)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Statistics in epidemiology: the case-control study

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N. E. Breslow1•
University of Washington1
01 Mar 1996-Journal of the American Statistical Association
TL;DR: This article presents a general review of the major trends in the conceptualization, development, and success of case-control methods for the study of disease causation and prevention.
Abstract: Statisticians have contributed enormously to the conceptualization, development, and success of case-control methods for the study of disease causation and prevention. This article reviews the major developments. It starts with Cornfield's demonstration of odds ratio invariance under cohort versus case-control sampling, proceeds through the still-popular Mantel—Haenszel procedure and its extensions for dependent data, and highlights (conditional) likelihood methods for relative risk regression. Recent work on nested case-control, case-cohort, and two-stage case-control designs demonstrates the continuing impact of statistical thinking on epidemiology. The influence of R. A. Fisher's work on these developments is mentioned wherever possible. His objections to the drawing of causal conclusions from observational data on cigarette smoking and lung cancer are used to introduce the problems of measurement error and confounding bias. The resolution of such difficulties, whether by further development a...

434 citations

"What is a case-control study?" refers methods in this paper

  • ...8 This design was executed in SAS® by specifying “TIES=Breslow” in the model statement and configuring the input data so that the matched sets (1 crash driver and 2 controls) were separate strata (SAS Institute, 1995). This model statement correctly conditions for the fact that two controls are matched to each crash driver thereby creating two contrasts of the covariate vector within each strata. All analyses were done using the SAS® events/trials syntax mode. For a full description of the logistic regression theory and approach, the interested reader is directed to references such as Hosmer and Lemeshow (2000)....

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The role of the drinking driver in traffic accidents (the Grand Rapids study)

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R. F. Borkenstein, Richard F. Crowther, Robert P. Shumate
01 Jan 1974
TL;DR: Blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) over 0.04% are definitely associated with an increased accident rate and high BACs are always associated with bad accident experience, and the difference in the accident potential between the various classes of drivers is unimportant.
Abstract: Blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) over 0.04% are definitely associated with an increased accident rate. The probability of accident involvement increases rapidly at BACs over 0.08%, and becomes extremely high at BACs above 0.15%. When drivers with BACs over 0.08% have accidents, they tend to have more single vehicle accidents, more severe (in terms of injury and damage) accidents and more expensive accidents than sober drivers. BACs of 0.04% and below apparently are not inconsistent with traffic safety. Many factors other than alcohol are related to the probability of accident involvement. The driver classes with the worst accident experience, in addition to the alcoholically impaired, are the young or very old, the inexperienced and those with less formal education. Persons with the most education, those with better jobs and the middle aged, have better than average accident experience. The effects of alcohol are consistent within the various socioeconomic classes considered. High BACs are always associated with bad accident experience. At the higher BACs, the difference in the accident potential between the various classes of drivers is unimportant. An important aspect of the applied survey technique is that it is adaptable to assessing the effect of various policies directed at the drinking driver. Drinking and driving is clearly associated with the frequent use, or abuse, of alcohol. Many drivers with BACs overestimate the number of drinks that it is safe to have before driving. The tendency to drive after drinking is related significantly to the socioeconomic categories appearing most frequently in the drinking driver class.

411 citations

"What is a case-control study?" refers background or result in this paper

  • ...A relative risk function derived from epidemiological data collected in Grand Rapids, Michigan during the 1960’s contributed to the current legal limits for driving (Borkenstein et al., 1964)....

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  • ...Section 2 and Appendix A of this report review several studies, including the landmark Grand Rapids Study (Borkenstein et al., 1964) and report on re-analyses of the Grand Rapids data by Allsop (1966) and Hurst et al....

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  • ...None of several studies conducted since the Grand Rapids Study has been a true case-control effort....

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  • ...A review of the Grand Rapids Study, reported in a British government monograph (Allsop, 1966), includes a relative risk calculation for crash involvement as a function of BAC....

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  • ...Discussion....................................................................................................................... 83 5.1 Non-participant Bias ............................................................................................... 83 5.2 Curve Fitting ........................................................................................................... 84 5.3 Confidence Intervals ............................................................................................... 85 5.4 Covariate Selection ................................................................................................. 85 5.5 Comparisons with the Grand Rapids Study ............................................................ 87 5.6 Future Data Analysis and Research ........................................................................ 87 5.6.1 Additional Analyses with Respect to the Relative Risk of Alcohol ............... 89 5.6.2 Additional Research........................................................................................ 91 6....

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