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Journal Article•DOI•

When helping helps: autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient.

Netta Weinstein1, Richard M. Ryan1•
University of Rochester1
01 Feb 2010-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association)-Vol. 98, Iss: 2, pp 222-244
TL;DR: Four studies tested the impact of autonomous and controlled motivation for helping others on well-being and explored effects on other outcomes of helping for both helpers and recipients.
Abstract: Self-determination theory posits that the degree to which a prosocial act is volitional or autonomous predicts its effect on well-being and that psychological need satisfaction mediates this relation. Four studies tested the impact of autonomous and controlled motivation for helping others on well-being and explored effects on other outcomes of helping for both helpers and recipients. Study 1 used a diary method to assess daily relations between prosocial behaviors and helper well-being and tested mediating effects of basic psychological need satisfaction. Study 2 examined the effect of choice on motivation and consequences of autonomous versus controlled helping using an experimental design. Study 3 examined the consequences of autonomous versus controlled helping for both helpers and recipients in a dyadic task. Finally, Study 4 manipulated motivation to predict helper and recipient outcomes. Findings support the idea that autonomous motivation for helping yields benefits for both helper and recipient through greater need satisfaction. Limitations and implications are discussed.
Citations
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Journal Article•DOI•
On Psychological Growth and Vulnerability: Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Need Frustration as a Unifying Principle

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Maarten Vansteenkiste1, Richard M. Ryan2•
Ghent University1, University of Rochester2
01 Jan 2013-Journal of Psychotherapy Integration
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of recent research indicates how contextual need support and the experience of need satisfaction promote well-being and different growth manifestations (e.g., intrinsic motivation, internalization), as well as a rapidly growing body of work relating need thwarting and need frustration to ill-being, pursuit of need substitutes, and various forms of maladaptive functioning.
Abstract: Humans have a potential for growth, integration, and well-being, while also being vulnerable to defensiveness, aggression, and ill-being. Self-determination theory (R. M. Ryan & E. L. Deci, 2000, Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development and well-being,American Psychologist, Vol. 55, pp. 68‐78) argues that satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness both fosters immediate well-being and strengthens inner resources contributing to subsequent resilience, whereas need frustration evokes illbeing and increased vulnerabilities for defensiveness and psychopathology. We briefly review recent research indicating how contextual need support and the experience of need satisfaction promote well-being and different growth manifestations (e.g., intrinsic motivation, internalization), as well as a rapidly growing body of work relating need thwarting and need frustration to ill-being, pursuit of need substitutes, and various forms of maladaptive functioning. Finally, we discuss research on differences in autonomous self-regulation and mindfulness, which serve as factors of resilience.

1,177 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Volunteerism Research: A Review Essay

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John Wilson1•
Duke University1
13 Feb 2012-Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly
TL;DR: This paper used a volunteer process model to organize a review of recent research on volunteerism, focusing mainly on journal articles reporting survey research results, and found that most of the articles were conducted by experts from several different disconferences.
Abstract: I use a volunteer process model to organize a review of recent research on volunteerism, focusing mainly on journal articles reporting survey research results. Scholars from several different disci...

663 citations

Cites background from "When helping helps: autonomous moti..."

  • ...Motivations also play a role in a study of college students: those who volunteered for intrinsic reasons felt better than those who volunteered for extrinsic reasons, such as a desire to please others (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010)....

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Book Chapter•DOI•
The development of the five mini-theories of self-determination theory: an historical overview, emerging trends, and future directions

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Maarten Vansteenkiste, Christopher P. Niemiec, Bart Soenens
12 Jul 2010
TL;DR: Deci as mentioned in this paper proposed that people possess intrinsic motivation (IM) which can manifest as engagement in curiosity-based behaviors, discovery of new perspectives, and seeking out optimal challenges (see also Harlow, 1953; White, 1959).
Abstract: Cognitive evaluation theory (CET; Deci, 1975), SDT's first mini-theory, was built from research on the dynamic interplay between external events (e.g., rewards, choice) and people's task interest or enjoyment – that is, intrinsic motivation (IM). At the time, this research was quite controversial, as operant theory (Skinner, 1971) had dominated the psychological landscape. The central assumption of operant theory was that reinforcement contingencies in the environment control behavior, which precluded the existence of inherently satisfying activities performed for non-separable outcomes. During this time, Deci proposed that people – by nature – possess intrinsic motivation (IM), which can manifest as engagement in curiosity-based behaviors, discovery of new perspectives, and seeking out optimal challenges (see also Harlow, 1953; White, 1959). IM thus represents a manifestation of the organismic growth tendency and is readily observed in infants' and toddlers' exploratory behavior and play. Operationally, an intrinsically motivated activity is performed for its own sake – that is, the behavior is experienced as inherently satisfying. From an attributional perspective (deCharms, 1968), such behaviors have an internal perceived locus of causality, as people perceive their behavior as emanating from their sense of self, rather than from experiences of control or coercion.

632 citations

Cites background from "When helping helps: autonomous moti..."

  • ...Finally, being pressured to help another has been found to undermine both the helper’s and the recipient’s well-being, suggesting that the adverse effects of controlling contexts can radiate to others (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010)....

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Posted Content•
Prosocial Spending and Well-Being: Cross-Cultural Evidence for a Psychological Universal

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Lara B. Aknin1, Christopher Barrington-Leigh2, Elizabeth W. Dunn1, John F. Helliwell1, John F. Helliwell3, Robert Biswas-Diener4, Imelda Kemeza5, Paul Nyende6, Claire E. Ashton-James7, Michael I. Norton8 •
University of British Columbia1, McGill University2, National Bureau of Economic Research3, University of Warwick4, Mbarara University of Science and Technology5, Makerere University6, University of Groningen7, Harvard University8
01 Sep 2010-Social Science Research Network
TL;DR: This article found that prosocial spending is consistently associated with greater happiness and that the reward experienced from helping others may be deeply ingrained in human nature, emerging in diverse cultural and economic contexts.
Abstract: This research provides the first support for a possible psychological universal: human beings around the world derive emotional benefits from using their financial resources to help others (prosocial spending). Analyzing survey data from 136 countries, we show that prosocial spending is consistently associated with greater happiness. To test for causality, we conduct experiments within two very different countries (Canada and Uganda) and show that spending money on others has a consistent, causal impact on happiness. In contrast to traditional economic thought--which places self-interest as the guiding principle of human motivation--our findings suggest that the reward experienced from helping others may be deeply ingrained in human nature, emerging in diverse cultural and economic contexts.

541 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Prosocial Spending and Well-Being: Cross-Cultural Evidence for a Psychological Universal

[...]

Lara B. Aknin1, Christopher Barrington-Leigh2, Elizabeth W. Dunn1, John F. Helliwell1, Justine Burns3, Robert Biswas-Diener, Imelda Kemeza4, Paul Nyende5, Claire E. Ashton-James6, Michael I. Norton7 •
University of British Columbia1, McGill University2, University of Cape Town3, Mbarara University of Science and Technology4, Makerere University5, University of Groningen6, Harvard University7
01 Feb 2013-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
TL;DR: This article found that prosocial spending is associated with greater happiness around the world, in poor and rich countries alike, and that the reward experienced from helping others is deeply ingrained in human nature, emerging in diverse cultural and economic contexts.
Abstract: This research provides the first support for a possible psychological universal: Human beings around the world derive emotional benefits from using their financial resources to help others (prosocial spending). In Study 1, survey data from 136 countries were examined and showed that prosocial spending is associated with greater happiness around the world, in poor and rich countries alike. To test for causality, in Studies 2a and 2b, we used experimental methodology, demonstrating that recalling a past instance of prosocial spending has a causal impact on happiness across countries that differ greatly in terms of wealth (Canada, Uganda, and India). Finally, in Study 3, participants in Canada and South Africa randomly assigned to buy items for charity reported higher levels of positive affect than participants assigned to buy the same items for themselves, even when this prosocial spending did not provide an opportunity to build or strengthen social ties. Our findings suggest that the reward experienced from helping others may be deeply ingrained in human nature, emerging in diverse cultural and economic contexts.

509 citations

References
More filters
Journal Article•DOI•
The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.

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Reuben M. Baron, David A. Kenny
01 Dec 1986-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
TL;DR: This article seeks to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ, and delineates the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena.
Abstract: In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.

80,095 citations

"When helping helps: autonomous moti..." refers background or methods or result in this paper

  • ...Regression analyses were in accord with recommendations by Baron and Kenny (1986). Need satisfaction was predicted by the dummycoded condition variable (autonomy 1; control 0): relatedness, ....

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  • ...guidelines described by Baron and Kenny (1986). To demonstrate mediated moderation effects, an interacting effect of amount donated and motivation on well-being must be first demonstrated. Next, an interacting effect must be present predicting the mediator (need satisfaction), and the mediator must predict well-being. Finally, the moderator effect must drop to nonsignificance when including the mediating construct in a final regression analysis. For brevity we did not test mediational effects for each outcome. Instead, we tested mediation of need satisfaction on a composite PA self-esteem vitality – NA reflecting overall well-being as in Study 1 ( for the three subscales .76). Manipulation check for motivation to help. Results using the Motivation to Help Scale showed that autonomous motivation to help was significantly higher in the choice as opposed to the no-choice condition, t(79) 2.29, p .05, d 0.52 (Mchoice 1.0; Mno choice 0.3). Main effects of condition. Affect. We analyzed positive affect and negative affect together to more precisely replicate the results for Studies 1 and 2 (positive affect PA – NA). Results showed that women experienced marginally higher positive affect after the task, .23, t(73) 1.94, p .06, d 0.88, and affect was predicted by higher baseline affect, .62, t(73) 3.85, p .01, d 0.90. A two-way interaction between condition and amount donated was present, .55, t(72) 3.49, p .01, d 0.82. Simple effects demonstrated that when provided with a choice to donate money, participants experienced higher affect after the task as a function of the amount they gave, .56, t(36) 3.83, p .01, d 1.28. On the other hand, those with no choice tended to experience lower affect as they donated more money, –.13, t(36) –1.66, p .10, d 0.55. Vitality. Gender did not influence vitality, .12, t(73) 1.48, p .05, d 0.35, and baseline vitality predicted vitality after giving, .67, t(73) 3.95, p .01, d 0.93. An interaction was present for subjective vitality, .48, t(72) 2.90, p .01, d 0.68, which showed that choiceful givers experienced higher vitality as they donated more money, .49, t(36) 3.50, p .01, d 1.17, whereas no-choice givers tended to experience lower vitality as they donated larger sums, –.17, t(36) –1.81, p .08, d 0.60. Self-esteem. There was no effect of gender on self-esteem, .07, t(73) 1.05, p .10, d 0.25, though baseline self-esteem predicted self-esteem after task, .52, t(73) 3.73, p .01, d 0.87. Self-esteem was impacted by the Condition Sum Donated interaction, .38, t(72) 2.65, p .01, d 0.68. Simple effects demonstrated a positive impact of donating money in the choice condition, .32, t(36) 3.27, p .01, d 1.09, but no effect of money donated in the no-choice condition, –.73, t(36) –1.11, p .20, d 0.37. Desire for continued interaction. Positive affect predicted desire for continued interaction, .44, t(73) 3.12, p .01, d 0.73, as did gender, .42, t(73) 2.47, p .05, d 0.58. An interaction was present predicting participants’ desire to continue interacting with the recipient, .36, t(72) 2.36, p .05, d 0.55. Marginal simple effects indicated a tendency, when giving more money, to prefer continued interaction with the recipient in the choice condition, .17, t(36) 1.72, p .10, d 0.57, but to prefer less future interaction when in the no-choice condition, –.28, t(36) –1.65, p .11, d 0.55. Generosity. There was no effect of gender on generosity, .94, t(73) 1.45, p .10, d 0.33; positive affect related to higher generosity, .31, t(73) 2.62, p .01, d 0.63. Participants were asked to decide on a “bonus” sum of money to be given to the recipients at no cost to themselves. Controlling for affect after the initial money donation, this sum was predicted by a Condition Donation interaction, .33, t(69) 2.10, p .05, d 0.50. Generosity was not predicted by initial amount donated in the choice condition, –.02, t(34) –0.03, p .50, d 0.01. However, those in the no-choice condition were less generous after having to give more money initially, –.42, t(32) –2.49, p .05, d 0.88. Need satisfaction. A significant interaction was present predicting each of the three need satisfactions: competence, .51, t(72) 4.01, p .01, d 0.95; relatedness, .55, t(72) 4.25, p .01, d 1.01; and autonomy, .53, t(72) 4.13, p .01, d 0.97. This occurred such that choiceful participants experienced higher satisfaction of the three needs the more money they donated, average .41, t(36) 3.09, p .01, d 1.02, whereas participants who did not receive a choice reported lower need satisfaction as they donated more money, average –.30, t(36) –2.90, p .01, d 0.98. Mediation by need satisfaction. We tested mediation effect by need satisfaction for the Condition (choice vs. no-choice) Donation interaction on the well-being composite. As described above, this interaction predicted need satisfaction. Need satisfaction, in turn, predicted the well-being composite: relatedness, .38, t(70) 2.99, p .01, d 0.72; autonomy, .31, t(70) 2.15, p .05, d 0.52; and marginally competence, .23, t(70) 1.84, p .07, d 0.44. The Condition Donation interaction predicted higher well-being, .46, t(72) 3.96, p .01, d 0.93 (see Figure 2), but this effect dropped to nonsignificance after accounting for need satisfaction, .08, t(69) 0.56, p .05, d 0.13. The Sobel (1982) test supported indirect effects between condition, relatedness and autonomy need satisfactions, and well-being (zs averaged 2....

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  • ...Th is a rti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r t he p er so na l u se o f t he in di vi du al u se r a nd is n ot to b e di ss em in at ed b ro ad ly . guidelines described by Baron and Kenny (1986)....

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  • ...Three models can be specified in HLM that represent Baron and Kenny’s (1986) requirements....

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  • ...Regression analyses were in accord with recommendations by Baron and Kenny (1986)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being.

[...]

Richard M. Ryan1, Edward L. Deci•
University of Rochester1
01 Jan 2000-American Psychologist
TL;DR: Research guided by self-determination theory has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development, leading to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
Abstract: Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theo~ has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatednesswhich when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy. T he fullest representations of humanity show people to be curious, vital, and self-motivated. At their best, they are agentic and inspired, striving to learn; extend themselves; master new skills; and apply their talents responsibly. That most people show considerable effort, agency, and commitment in their lives appears, in fact, to be more normative than exceptional, suggesting some very positive and persistent features of human nature. Yet, it is also clear that the human spirit can be diminished or crushed and that individuals sometimes reject growth and responsibility. Regardless of social strata or cultural origin, examples of both children and adults who are apathetic, alienated, and irresponsible are abundant. Such non-optimal human functioning can be observed not only in our psychological clinics but also among the millions who, for hours a day, sit passively before their televisions, stare blankly from the back of their classrooms, or wait listlessly for the weekend as they go about their jobs. The persistent, proactive, and positive tendencies of human nature are clearly not invariantly apparent. The fact that human nature, phenotypically expressed, can be either active or passive, constructive or indolent, suggests more than mere dispositional differences and is a function of more than just biological endowments. It also bespeaks a wide range of reactions to social environments that is worthy of our most intense scientific investigation. Specifically, social contexts catalyze both within- and between-person differences in motivation and personal growth, resulting in people being more self-motivated, energized, and integrated in some situations, domains, and cultures than in others. Research on the conditions that foster versus undermine positive human potentials has both theoretical import and practical significance because it can contribute not only to formal knowledge of the causes of human behavior but also to the design of social environments that optimize people's development, performance, and well-being. Research guided by self-determination theory (SDT) has had an ongoing concern with precisely these

29,115 citations

"When helping helps: autonomous moti..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Beyond the distinction between autonomous and controlled acts, SDT posits that well-being is enhanced when one’s actions and interactions satisfy basic psychological needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000)....

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  • ...Literature based on SDT has shown that autonomous versus controlled motives predict such outcomes as persistence, interest, and well-being in domains such as school, work, sport, and health care, among others (Ryan & Deci, 2000)....

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  • ...SDT theorizes that behaviors vary with respect to how autonomous, or self-motivated and volitional, they are (Ryan & Deci, 2000) and focuses on the presence of volition or autonomy embedded in motives such as those outlined by the functional approach....

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Book•
Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods

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James A. Calvin1•
University of Chicago1
03 Mar 1992
TL;DR: The Logic of Hierarchical Linear Models (LMLM) as discussed by the authors is a general framework for estimating and hypothesis testing for hierarchical linear models, and it has been used in many applications.
Abstract: Introduction The Logic of Hierarchical Linear Models Principles of Estimation and Hypothesis Testing for Hierarchical Linear Models An Illustration Applications in Organizational Research Applications in the Study of Individual Change Applications in Meta-Analysis and Other Cases Where Level-1 Variances are Known Three-Level Models Assessing the Adequacy of Hierarchical Models Technical Appendix

23,126 citations

Posted Content•
The Satisfaction with Life Scale

[...]

Ed Diener1, Robert A. Emmons1, Randy J. Larsen1, Sharon Griffin1•
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign1
10 Jan 2013-Social Science Research Network
TL;DR: The Satisfaction With Life Scale is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness, but is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability.
Abstract: This article reports the development and validation of a scale to measure global life satisfaction, the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Among the various components of subjective well-being, the SWLS is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness. The SWLS is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. Scores on the SWLS correlate moderately to highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and correlate predictably with specific personality characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is suited for use with different age groups, and other potential uses of the scale are discussed.

21,449 citations

"When helping helps: autonomous moti..." refers methods in this paper

  • ...This measure of day satisfaction was used in place of life-satisfaction for the diary portion of the study (Diener et al., 1985)....

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  • ...Participants responded on a scale of 1 (very bad) to 7 (very good) to a single item (adapted from Oishi, Diener, Suh, & Lucas, 1999): “In general, how good or bad was today?” This measure of day satisfaction was used in place of life-satisfaction for the diary portion of the study (Diener et al., 1985)....

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Book•
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior

[...]

Edward L. Deci, Richard M. Ryan
01 Aug 1975
TL;DR: This chapter discusses the development of Causality Orientations Theory, a theory of personality Influences on Motivation, and its application in information-Processing Theories.
Abstract: I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.

21,337 citations

"When helping helps: autonomous moti..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Brehm’s (1966) theoretical approach is consistent with SDT’s assumption that a sense of choice (or autonomy) is important for predicting positive outcomes (see Deci & Ryan, 1985a)....

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  • ...…above the controlled helper still felt strong and effective in helping the elderly individual), findings indicate that the subjective sense of competence otherwise achieved is inhibited by the sense that the behavior did not originate in oneself (Deci & Ryan, 1985b; Nix, Ryan, Manly, & Deci, 1999)....

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  • ...We focused on neuroticism in particular ( .91) to control for its known effects on motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985a) and well-being (e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1980)....

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  • ...The controlled helper does not feel that he or she “owns” the helping act (deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985b), and his or her experience of autonomy as well as other needs is likely to be undermined....

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  • ...Total need satisfaction, in turn, can be expected to foster a sense of well-being in the helper (Deci & Ryan, 1985b, 2000)....

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01 Jan 2000-American Psychologist
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30 May 1988-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
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