Work–Family Conflict and Flexible Work Arrangements: Deconstructing Flexibility
TL;DR: In this article, meta-analysis is used to clarify what is known about the relationship between flexible work arrangements and work-family conflict by deconstructing the flexibility construct, and they found that the direction of work conflict (work interference with family vs. family interference with work) and the specific form of flexibility make a difference in the effects found.
Abstract: Workplace flexibility has been a topic of considerable interest to researchers, practitioners, and public policy advocates as a tool to help individuals manage work and family roles. In this study, meta-analysis is used to clarify what is known about the relationship between flexible work arrangements and work–family conflict by deconstructing the flexibility construct. We found that the direction of work–family conflict (work interference with family vs. family interference with work) and the specific form of flexibility (flextime vs. flexplace; use vs. availability) make a difference in the effects found. Overall, the significant effects were small in magnitude.
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TL;DR: This article discusses research findings concerning salient contextual issues that might influence or alter the impact of telecommuting, including the nature of the work performed while telecommuters, interpersonal processes such as knowledge sharing and innovation, and additional considerations that include motives fortelecommuting such as family responsibilities.
Abstract: Telecommuting has become an increasingly popular work mode that has generated significant interest from scholars and practitioners alike. With recent advances in technology that enable mobile connections at ever-affordable rates, working away from the office as a telecommuter has become increasingly available to many workers around the world. Since the term telecommuting was first coined in the 1970s, scholars and practitioners have debated the merits of working away from the office, as it represents a fundamental shift in how organizations have historically done business. Complicating efforts to truly understand the implications of telecommuting have been the widely varying definitions and conceptualizations of telecommuting and the diverse fields in which research has taken place.Our objective in this article is to review existing research on telecommuting in an effort to better understand what we as a scientific community know about telecommuting and its implications. In so doing, we aim to bring to the surface some of the intricacies associated with telecommuting research so that we may shed insights into the debate regarding telecommuting's benefits and drawbacks. We attempt to sift through the divergent and at times conflicting literature to develop an overall sense of the status of our scientific findings, in an effort to identify not only what we know and what we think we know about telecommuting, but also what we must yet learn to fully understand this increasingly important work mode.After a brief review of the history of telecommuting and its prevalence, we begin by discussing the definitional challenges inherent within existing literature and offer a comprehensive definition of telecommuting rooted in existing research. Our review starts by highlighting the need to interpret existing findings with an understanding of how the extent of telecommuting practiced by participants in a study is likely to alter conclusions that may be drawn. We then review telecommuting's implications for employees' work-family issues, attitudes, and work outcomes, including job satisfaction, organizational commitment and identification, stress, performance, wages, withdrawal behaviors, and firm-level metrics. Our article continues by discussing research findings concerning salient contextual issues that might influence or alter the impact of telecommuting, including the nature of the work performed while telecommuting, interpersonal processes such as knowledge sharing and innovation, and additional considerations that include motives for telecommuting such as family responsibilities. We also cover organizational culture and support that may shape the telecommuting experience, after which we discuss the community and societal effects of telecommuting, including its effects on traffic and emissions, business continuity, and work opportunities, as well as the potential impact on societal ties. Selected examples of telecommuting legislation and policies are also provided in an effort to inform readers regarding the status of the national debate and its legislative implications. Our synthesis concludes by offering recommendations for telecommuting research and practice that aim to improve the quality of data on telecommuting as well as identify areas of research in need of development.
760 citations
Cites result from "Work–Family Conflict and Flexible W..."
...Both meta-analyses tested for the percentage of women in the samples as a moderator, with null results (Allen et al., 2013; Gajendran & Harrison, 2007)....
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TL;DR: This paper reviewed the literature on alternative work arrangements published since the most recent major review of nonstandard work by Ashford et al. (2007) and identified three dimensions of flexibility that undergird alternative work arrangement: flexibility in the employment relationship, flexibility in scheduling of work, and flexibility in where work is accomplished.
Abstract: Alternative work arrangements continue to increase in number and variety. We review the literature on alternative work arrangements published since the most recent major review of nonstandard work by Ashford et al. (2007). We look across the research findings to identify three dimensions of flexibility that undergird alternative work arrangements: (a) flexibility in the employment relationship, (b) flexibility in the scheduling of work, and (c) flexibility in where work is accomplished. We identify two images of the new world of work—one for high-skill workers who choose alternative work arrangements and the other for low-skill workers who struggle to make a living and are beholden to the needs of the organization. We close with future directions for research and practice for tending to the first image and moving away from the second image of the new world of work.
326 citations
TL;DR: The article begins by noting trends that have contributed to interest in the topic, and then outlines major theoretical perspectives on boundary management and boundary characteristics, integration/segmentation, and associated constructs.
Abstract: Theory, constructs, and research with regard to individual work–family boundary management dynamics are reviewed with the goal of promoting a greater understanding and integration of the existing literature. The article begins by noting trends that have contributed to interest in the topic, and then outlines major theoretical perspectives on boundary management and boundary characteristics, integration/segmentation, and associated constructs. It next notes limitations of existing research and concludes with recommendations for future research.
312 citations
Cites background from "Work–Family Conflict and Flexible W..."
...This literature includes studies that examine perceptions of the availability of flexibility as well as the use of flexibility (Allen et al. 2013)....
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...A recent metaanalysis by Allen et al. (2013) showed that perceived availability of spatial flexibility had a very small but significant relationship with family-to-work conflict, but not with work-tofamily conflict....
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...…is important because meta-analyses examining workplace support (e.g., family-supportive organizational perceptions, family-supportive supervision) demonstrate effect sizes that are twice the size of flexibility alone in relationship to work–family conflict (Allen et al. 2013, Kossek et al. 2011)....
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TL;DR: The results of the studies show that gender matters in understanding the outcomes of flexible working, but also it matters differently in different contexts.
Abstract: This special brings together innovative and multidisciplinary research (sociology, economics, and social work) using data from across Europe and the US to examine the potential flexible working has on the gender division of labour and workers’ work–life balance. Despite numerous studies on the gendered outcomes of flexible working, it is limited in that the majority is based on qualitative studies based in the US. The papers of this special issue overcome some of the limitations by examining the importance of context, namely, family, organisational and country context, examining the intersection between gender and class, and finally examining the outcomes for different types of flexible working arrangements. The introduction to this special issue provides a review of the existing literature on the gendered outcomes of flexible working on work life balance and other work and family outcomes, before presenting the key findings of the articles of this special issue. The results of the studies show that gender matters in understanding the outcomes of flexible working, but also it matters differently in different contexts. The introduction further provides policy implications drawn from the conclusions of the studies and some thoughts for future studies to consider.
213 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an integrated conceptualization of work-life balance involving two key dimensions: engagement in work life and non-work life and minimal conflict between social roles in work and nonwork life is introduced.
Abstract: Based on a thorough review of the literature we introduce an integrated conceptualization of work-life balance involving two key dimensions: engagement in work life and nonwork life and minimal conflict between social roles in work and nonwork life. Based on this conceptualization we review much of the evidence concerning the consequences of work-life balance in terms work-related, nonwork-related, and stress-related outcomes. We then identify a set of personal and organizational antecedents to work-life balance and explain their effects on work-life balance. Then we describe a set of theoretical mechanisms linking work-life balance and overall life satisfaction. Finally, we discuss future research directions and policy implications.
178 citations
References
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TL;DR: An examination of the literature on conflict between work and family roles suggests that work-family conflict exists when time devoted to the requirements of one role makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of another.
Abstract: An examination of the literature on conflict between work and family roles suggests that work-family conflict exists when: (a) time devoted to the requirements of one role makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of another; (b) strain from participation in one role makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of another; and (c) specific behaviors required by one role make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of another. A model of work-family conflict is proposed, and a series of research propositions is presented.
6,275 citations
"Work–Family Conflict and Flexible W..." refers background in this paper
...Work–family conflict is thought to occur when the demands of one role drain the resources needed to meet the demands of the other role (Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985)....
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...Work– family conflict is defined as “a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect” (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985, p. 77)....
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01 Jan 1990TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a meta-analysis of Artifact Distributions and their impact on study outcomes. But they focus mainly on the second-order sampling error and related issues.
Abstract: PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO META-ANALYSIS Integrating Research Findings Across Studies Study Artifacts and Their Impact on Study Outcomes PART TWO: META-ANALYSIS OF CORRELATIONS Meta-Analysis of Correlations Corrected Individually for Artifacts Meta-Analysis of Correlations Using Artifact Distributions Technical Questions in Meta-Analysis of Correlations PART THREE: META-ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL EFFECTS AND OTHER DICHOTOMOUS COMPARISONS Treatment Effects Experimental Artifacts and Their Impact Meta-Analysis Methods for d Values Technical Questions in Meta-Analysis of d Values PART FOUR: GENERAL ISSUES IN META-ANALYSIS Second Order Sampling Error and Related Issues Cumulation of Findings within Studies Methods of Integrating Findings Across Studies Locating, Selecting, and Evaluating Studies General Criticisms of Meta-Analysis Summary of Psychometric Meta-Analysis
4,673 citations
TL;DR: The results suggest that the self's capacity for active volition is limited and that a range of seemingly different, unrelated acts share a common resource.
Abstract: Choice, active response, self-regulation, and other volition may all draw on a common inner resource. In Experiment 1, people who forced themselves to eat radishes instead of tempting chocolates subsequently quit faster on unsolvable puzzles than people who had not had to exert self-control over eating. In Experiment 2, making a meaningful personal choice to perform attitude-relevant behavior caused a similar decrement in persistence. In Experiment 3, suppressing emotion led to a subsequent drop in performance of solvable anagrams. In Experiment 4, an initial task requiring high self-regulation made people more passive (i.e., more prone to favor the passive-response option). These results suggest that the self's capacity for active volition is limited and that a range of seemingly different, unrelated acts share a common resource.
4,317 citations
"Work–Family Conflict and Flexible W..." refers background in this paper
...These acts of volition draw upon ego resources, potentially undermining self-regulation (Baumeister et al., 1998)....
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...These acts of volition draw upon ego resources, potentially undermining self-regulation (Baumeister et al., 1998). Other streams of research have discussed the peril associated with too much choice such as increased uncertainty and cognitive overload (Chua & Iyengar, 2006; Iyengar & Lepper, 2000). Flexibility may create additional resource allocation choices that can be difficult to manage. Moreover, an integration of individual differences research may be needed. Individuals may not possess the skills needed to allocate resources in a way that best helps avert work–family conflict (Lapierre & Allen, 2012). Similarly, as we noted in our literature review, it also seems possible that flexibility can create the opportunity for self-control demands (Schmidt & Neubach, 2007). Schmidt and Neubach (2007) identify three types of self-control demands (impulse control, resisting distractions, and overcoming inner resistances), and research suggests that individuals differ in their capacity for self-control (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000)....
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TL;DR: The authors review evidence that self-control may consume a limited resource and conclude that the executive component of the self--in particular, inhibition--relies on a limited, consumable resource.
Abstract: The authors review evidence that self-control may consume a limited resource. Exerting self-control may consume self-control strength, reducing the amount of strength available for subsequent self-control efforts. Coping with stress, regulating negative affect, and resisting temptations require self-control, and after such self-control efforts, subsequent attempts at self-control are more likely to fail. Continuous self-control efforts, such as vigilance, also degrade over time. These decrements in self-control are probably not due to negative moods or learned helplessness produced by the initial self-control attempt. These decrements appear to be specific to behaviors that involve self-control; behaviors that do not require self-control neither consume nor require self-control strength. It is concluded that the executive component of the self--in particular, inhibition--relies on a limited, consumable resource.
3,892 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that people are more likely to purchase gourmet jams or chocolates or to undertake optional class essay assignments when offered a limited array of 6 choices rather than a more extensive array of 24 or 30 choices.
Abstract: Current psychological theory and research affirm the positive affective and motivational consequences of having personal choice. These findings have led to the popular notion that the more choice, the better--that the human ability to manage, and the human desire for, choice is unlimited. Findings from 3 experimental studies starkly challenge this implicit assumption that having more choices is necessarily more intrinsically motivating than having fewer. These experiments, which were conducted in both field and laboratory settings, show that people are more likely to purchase gourmet jams or chocolates or to undertake optional class essay assignments when offered a limited array of 6 choices rather than a more extensive array of 24 or 30 choices. Moreover, participants actually reported greater subsequent satisfaction with their selections and wrote better essays when their original set of options had been limited. Implications for future research are discussed.
2,502 citations