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Journal ArticleDOI

Zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia psittaci in a chicken and turkey hatchery.

01 Jun 2011-Journal of Medical Microbiology (Microbiology Society)-Vol. 60, Iss: 6, pp 775-779
TL;DR: Zoonotic transmission occurred in all employees and a mixed infection with up to three different genotypes, also found in air samples, was discovered.
Abstract: Chlamydia psittaci is an obligately intracellular Gram-negative bacterium causing respiratory disease (chlamydiosis) or asymptomatic carriage in birds. C. psittaci is a zoonotic agent causing psittacosis or parrot fever in humans. Vertical and/or horizontal transmission via eggs might have serious repercussions on the C. psittaci infection status of poultry flocks and thus on zoonotic risk for all workers along the poultry supply chain. We therefore studied the presence of C. psittaci in a hatchery. In addition, we examined all (n=4) employees of the hatchery to evaluate the zoonotic risk. We could not detect C. psittaci on either eggshells or eggshell membranes. However, C. psittaci isolates of different outer-membrane protein A (ompA) genotypes were cultured from the air of both turkey (genotypes A and C) and chicken (genotype D) hatching chambers. Zoonotic transmission occurred in all employees and a mixed infection with up to three different genotypes (A, D and C), also found in air samples, was discovered. Diagnostic monitoring and reporting of C. psittaci infections in poultry workers should be promoted. Additionally, an efficient veterinary vaccine and information campaigns on zoonotic risk and preventive measures against C. psittaci transmission would be beneficial to public health.
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This compendium provides information about psittacosis and avian chlamydiosis to public health officials, physicians, veterinarians, the pet bird industry, and others concerned with controlling these diseases and protecting public health.
Abstract: Psittacosis, also known as parrot fever and ornithosis, is a bacterial infection that can cause severe pneumonia and other serious health problems in humans. It is caused by Chlamydia psittaci. Reclassification of the order Chlamydiales in 1999 into 2 genera (Chlamydia and Chlamydophila) was not wholly accepted or adopted. This resulted in a reversion to the single, original genus Chlamydia, which now encompasses all 9 species including Chlamydia psittaci. During 2003–2014, 112 human cases of psittacosis were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention through the Nationally Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System. While many types of birds can be infected by C psittaci, in general, the literature suggests that human cases can most often occur after exposure to infected parrot-type birds kept as pets, especially cockatiels, parakeets, and conures. In birds, C psittaci infection is referred to as avian chlamydiosis. Infected birds shed the bacteria through feces and nasal discharges, and humans become infected from exposure to these materials. This compendium provides information about psittacosis and avian chlamydiosis to public health officials, physicians, veterinarians, the pet bird industry, and others concerned with controlling these diseases and protecting public health. The recommendations in this compendium provide standardized procedures to control C psittaci infections. This document will be reviewed and revised as necessary, and the most current version replaces all previous versions. This document was last revised in 2010. Major changes in this version include a recommendation for a shorter treatment time for birds with avian chlamydiosis, additional information about diagnostic testing, including genotyping, clearer language associated with personal protective equipment recommended for those caring for confirmed or exposed birds, and incorporating a grading scale with recommendations generally based on the United States Preventive Services Task Force's methods.

146 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is concluded that thorough analysis of the large number of whole-genome sequences already available will be essential to identify genetic markers of the species-specific features and trigger more in-depth studies in cellular and animal models to address such vital topics as treatment and vaccination.
Abstract: Chlamydia (C.) psittaci is an economically relevant pathogen in poultry and pet birds, where it causes psittacosis/ornithosis, and also a human pathogen causing atypical pneumonia after zoonotic transmission. Despite its well-documented prevalence, the agent has received less attention by researchers than other Chlamydia spp. in the last decades. In the present paper, we review recently published data on C. psittaci infection and attempt to single out characteristic features distinguishing it from related chlamydial agents. It is remarkable that C. psittaci is particularly efficient in disseminating in the host organism causing systemic disease, which occasionally can take a fulminant course. At the cellular level, the pathogen's broad host cell spectrum (from epithelial cells to macrophages), its rapid entry and fast replication, proficient use of intracellular transport routes to mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus, the pronounced physical association of chlamydial inclusions with energy-providing cell compartments, as well as the subversive regulation of host cell survival during productive and persistent states facilitate the characteristic efficient growth and successful host-to-host spread of C. psittaci. At the molecular level, the pathogen was shown to upregulate essential chlamydial genes when facing the host immune response. We hypothesize that this capacity, in concert with expression of specific effectors of the type III secretion system and efficient suppression of selected host defense signals, contributes to successful establishment of the infection in the host. Concerning the immunology of host–pathogen interactions, C. psittaci has been shown to distinguish itself by coping more efficiently than other chlamydiae with pro-inflammatory mediators during early host response, which can, to some extent, explain the effective evasion and adaptation strategies of this bacterium. We conclude that thorough analysis of the large number of whole-genome sequences already available will be essential to identify genetic markers of the species-specific features and trigger more in-depth studies in cellular and animal models to address such vital topics as treatment and vaccination.

142 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Occupational physicians should be aware of emerging Chlamydiaceae infections in chickens and their zoonotic transmission on 19 Belgian chicken farms where C. psittaci ompA genotypes A and D were discovered.
Abstract: Chlamydia psittaci and atypical Chlamydiaceae infections are (re)-emerging in chickens. We therefore examined the prevalence of C. psittaci, atypical Chlamydiaceae and their zoonotic transmission on 19 Belgian chicken farms. Atypical Chlamydiaceae were not detected in chickens but 18 out of 19 farms were positive for C. psittaci by culture and PCR. C. psittaci ompA genotypes A and D were discovered. None of the examined humans (n = 31) was infected with atypical Chlamydiaceae, but 29 (93.5%) of them were positive for C. psittaci by culture and PCR. Genotypes A, D and a mixed infection with genotypes C and D were found. Humans (n = 2) working at the C. psittaci-negative farm never had respiratory complaints, while 25 out of 29 positive farmers (86.2%) reported yearly medical complaints potentially related to psittacosis. Four of them currently experienced respiratory disease and one of them was being treated with antibiotics. Four farmers (12.5%) mentioned that they had pneumonia after starting to keep chickens. Occupational physicians should be aware of emerging Chlamydiaceae infections in chickens.

58 citations


Cites background from "Zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia ..."

  • ...Zoonotic transmissions of genotypes A, C and D, and even mixed genotype A, C and D infections in poultry workers, have been observed before by Dickx & Vanrompay (2011), examining employees of a turkey and chicken hatchery....

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  • ...Zoonotic transmission to hatchery and abattoir employees did occur (Dickx et al., 2010; Dickx & Vanrompay, 2011), albeit without severe clinical consequences....

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  • ...However, during the last decade, C. psittaci has been detected and isolated from chickens raised in Australia, Belgium, China, France and Germany (Yang et al., 2007; Gaede et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2008; Laroucau et al., 2009; Robertson et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2010; Dickx & Vanrompay, 2011)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Repeated grassland rotations between duck and chicken flocks on the farm may explain the presence of C. psittaci, which is widespread among French duck flocks, which was found in the same flock as the chickens that the patients had slaughtered.
Abstract: Eight cases of psittacosis due to Chlamydia psittaci were identified in May 2013 among 15 individuals involved in chicken gutting activities on a mixed poultry farm in France. All cases were women between 42 and 67 years-old. Cases were diagnosed by serology and PCR of respiratory samples. Appropriate treatment was immediately administered to the eight hospitalised individuals after exposure to birds had been discovered. In the chicken flocks, mainly C. gallinacea was detected, a new member of the family Chlamydiaceae, whereas the ducks were found to harbour predominantly C. psittaci, the classical agent of psittacosis. In addition, C. psittaci was found in the same flock as the chickens that the patients had slaughtered. Both human and C. psittaci-positive avian samples carried the same ompA genotype E/B of C. psittaci, which is widespread among French duck flocks. Repeated grassland rotations between duck and chicken flocks on the farm may explain the presence of C. psittaci in the chickens. Inspection by the veterinary service led to temporary closure of the farm. All birds had to be euthanised on site as no slaughterhouses accepted processing them. Farm buildings and grasslands were cleaned and/or disinfected before the introduction of new poultry birds.

55 citations


Cites background from "Zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia ..."

  • ...psittaci infections in European and Asian chickens [7-9]....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This study indicates that C. psittaci has a certain preference for ducks, whereas C. gallinacea was the predominant chlamydial agent in chickens and guinea fowl flocks.
Abstract: Chlamydia psittaci and C. gallinacea are obligate intracellular bacteria infecting poultry. We conducted a survey in two poultry slaughterhouses that were processing either exclusively ducks (A) or various poultry species except ducks (B). Cloacal swabs were collected from all incoming poultry flocks in the course of a week, and blood samples and pharyngeal swabs were taken from workers. Swabs were examined using PCR and sera were analyzed with two immunoassays. PCR testing revealed the presence of C. psittaci in 9/38 duck flocks and the complete absence of C. gallinacea in these flocks (slaughterhouse A), whereas 16/33 Chlamydiaceae-positive poultry flocks handled in slaughterhouse B harbored C. gallinacea only. In an episode of psittacosis in slaughterhouse A, where one PCR-positive worker presented clinical signs, seroconversions were detected in 10 workers. In contrast, serological responses of slaughterhouse B workers to C. psittaci were generally low. This is in line with the almost complete absence of C. psittaci in handled flocks, where in additional sampling campaigns the agent was detected only once in the course of a year. Our study indicates that C. psittaci has a certain preference for ducks, whereas C. gallinacea was the predominant chlamydial agent in chickens and guinea fowl flocks.

47 citations


Cites background from "Zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia ..."

  • ...psittaci infections and sequelae in turkeys, ducks or mixed flocks have been reported more frequently (Hinton et al., 1993; Haas et al., 2007; Gaede et al., 2008; Laroucau et al., 2009a; Dickx et al., 2010; Dickx and Vanrompay 2011; Carlier et al., 2014)....

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  • ...…2014; Laroucau et al., 2014), whereas C. psittaci infections and sequelae in turkeys, ducks or mixed flocks have been reported more frequently (Hinton et al., 1993; Haas et al., 2007; Gaede et al., 2008; Laroucau et al., 2009a; Dickx et al., 2010; Dickx and Vanrompay 2011; Carlier et al., 2014)....

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References
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The current case definition for epidemiological surveillance, as issued by the CDC, is discussed, as well as the possible emergence of Cp.

231 citations


"Zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia ..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Zoonotic transfer occurs through inhalation of contaminated dust particles or contaminated aerosols created from nasal and/or eye secretions or from dried faeces (Beeckman & Vanrompay, 2009)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The first part of the present review gives an overview on the history of infectious agents of the order Chlamydiales and the general infection biology of ChlamYDophila (C.) psittaci, the causative agent of psittacosis.

223 citations


"Zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia ..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Nevertheless, vertical transmission of C. psittaci is thought to be rare (Harkinezhad et al., 2009)....

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  • ...Faecal contamination of eggshells by infected hens or during egg passage in the cloaca might occur, as C. psittaci resides in the gut and is excreted through the faeces (Harkinezhad et al., 2009)....

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  • ...…4 10.75 A Chicken hatching chamber T0 4 4.25 D T1 4 5.75 D T2 4 5.75 D T3 4 6.25 D 776 Journal of Medical Microbiology 60 Downloaded from www.microbiologyresearch.org by IP: 54.70.40.11 On: Wed, 07 Nov 2018 09:56:13 isolated from poultry workers with respiratory disease (Harkinezhad et al., 2009)....

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  • ...psittaci resides in the gut and is excreted through the faeces (Harkinezhad et al., 2009)....

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  • ...11 On: Thu, 03 Jan 2019 04:04:50 isolated from poultry workers with respiratory disease (Harkinezhad et al., 2009)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A better understanding of the material in this review paper will assist poultry researchers and the poultry industry in continuing to make progress in reducing and eliminating salmonellae from fertile hatching eggs, hatcheries, and breeder flocks.

163 citations


"Zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia ..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Thus, prophylactic measures such as monitoring C. psittaci infections in breeders, optimal hygiene and disinfection of eggs soon after laying (Cox et al., 2000) are currently the main weapons against egg contamination....

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  • ...psittaci infections in breeders, optimal hygiene and disinfection of eggs soon after laying (Cox et al., 2000) are currently the main weapons against egg contamination....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is concluded that the diagnosis of avian chlamydiosis is laborious and that there is still a need for more accurate, simple and rapid diagnostic tools, both for antigen and antibody detection in various species of birds.

149 citations


"Zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia ..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Genotype D is considered highly virulent and is excreted extensively (Vanrompay et al., 1995b)....

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  • ...Chlamydia psittaci is an obligately intracellular Gramnegative bacterium causing respiratory disease (chlamydiosis) or asymptomatic carriage in birds (Vanrompay et al., 1995a)....

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  • ...Moreover, transovarian transmission through haematogenous spread of C. psittaci might also occur (Vanrompay et al., 1995b)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The findings of the present study demonstrate the high zoonotic potential of avian chlamydiae.
Abstract: In 2005, an outbreak of severe respiratory disease in a mixed poultry flock that was infected with Chlamydophila (C.) psittaci led to dissemination of the infection to at least 100 small poultry farms in 11 districts of Central Germany. At the same time, a total of 24 persons in contact with poultry from one of the flocks reported flu-like symptoms to their physician, thus suggesting zoonotic transmission. Within 3 weeks, seven individuals had to be hospitalized, with three of them requiring intensive care. Analysis of ompA sequences from chlamydial isolates and directly from clinical samples revealed the presence of both genotype A and E/B of C. psittaci at the source of the outbreak and in contact flocks. Genotype A was also detected in the three severely ill patients. The findings of the present study demonstrate the high zoonotic potential of avian chlamydiae. To ensure speedy eradication of psittacosis in poultry flocks and effective treatment of infected humans, fast, sensitive and species-specific detection of the causative agent is essential, as well as close collaboration between regional public health services, attending physicians and the diagnostic laboratories involved.

126 citations


"Zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia ..." refers background in this paper

  • ...…(Laroucau et al., 2009b; Sting et al., 2006; Van Loock et al., 2005a; Verminnen et al., 2006) and zoonotic transfer of C. psittaci is a threat to poultry workers all over the world (Chahota et al., 2000; Dickx et al., 2010; Gaede et al., 2008; Laroucau et al., 2009a; Verminnen et al., 2008)....

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