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These neurons appear to be part of a diffuse cortically projecting system that includes brain stem monoaminergic neurons as well as the MBN column.
These results add to those from other areas of the brain demonstrating that the electrophysiological properties of pyramidal neurons are heterogeneous.
Topographical considerations and receptive field properties allowed us to conclude that the medial part of the field 7 (included type 2 neurons) is functionally equivalent to the area V4 in the cortex of primates, while the lateral part (type 1 neurons) may correspond to the area V4T.
Most neurons lie between the ends of this continuum, and in these neurons we find that shape and texture encoding are largely independent.
The sparsity of the labeled neurons in certain cortical areas may reflect the existence of Corticotectal neurons with axon collaterals supplying brain structures other than the superior colliculus.
Observations suggest that in the human brain the proportion of medium‐sized aspiny neurons and small neurons may be greater than in other species.
Our results suggest that the coding specificity of individual neurons extends to the local circuits of which they are part.
Our results indicate that most (96%) neurons responded to multiple phases of the task.
These results reveal concurrent representations of movement and choice in neurons widely distributed across the brain.
Our findings support the view that intermingled neurons in primary sensory areas send specific stimulus features to different parts of the brain.

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How does the myelin sheath's thickness affect the speed of action potential in neurons?
5 answers
The thickness of the myelin sheath significantly impacts the speed of action potential propagation in neurons. Thicker myelin sheaths, typically found in large-distance axonal connections or fast-spiking interneurons, enhance conduction velocity and energy efficiency. Myelin acts as an electrical insulator, confining action potentials to nodes of Ranvier in myelinated neurons, controlling their shapes, timings, and propagation speeds. In demyelinated axons, compensatory processes like mitochondrial mass increase and a switch from saltatory to continuous propagation are required to maintain axon functionality, albeit at the cost of reduced speed and increased energy expenditure. Lack of myelin, as seen in demyelinating diseases, exposes potassium channels to induce action potentials, highlighting the role of myelin in limiting hyperexcitability.
Do different mutations of kcc2 have different transport activities?
5 answers
Different mutations of KCC2 can indeed have varying effects on its transport activities. Mutations in the chloride-binding sites of KCC2 can impact its total expression and phosphorylation status, affecting its activating response and dysregulating signaling pathways. Additionally, mutations that prevent the phospho-dependent inactivation of KCC2 have been shown to increase basal neuronal Cl- extrusion and reduce deficits in synaptic inhibition, ultimately limiting chemoconvulsant-induced epileptiform activity. Furthermore, mutations like S940A in KCC2 can lead to selective deficits in KCC2 activity under certain conditions, emphasizing the critical role of specific phosphorylation sites in potentiating KCC2 function to prevent the development of status epilepticus. These findings highlight the importance of understanding how different mutations in KCC2 can modulate its transport activities and impact neuronal function.
Is NMN goog for longevity?
5 answers
NMN (nicotinamide mononucleotide) shows promise for longevity. Research indicates that NMN, as an NAD precursor, plays a crucial role in maintaining NAD levels, which decline with age and are linked to age-related diseases. NMN supplementation is associated with activating SARM1, an enzyme involved in axon degeneration, raising questions about its potential harm despite its anti-aging benefits. Studies highlight the importance of NAD in aging interventions, with NAD precursors like NMN and NR showing potential in promoting longevity and addressing age-related complications. Additionally, experiments suggest that NMN may help prevent aging by increasing AMPK and NAD+ levels, essential factors for longevity. Therefore, while NMN holds promise for longevity, further research is needed to fully understand its effects and ensure its safety for prolonged use.
How is novelty represented in brain?
4 answers
Novelty is represented in the brain through distinct neural mechanisms that facilitate rapid detection and processing of novel stimuli. The brain's response to novelty involves specialized circuits that drive attention, motivation, and memory processes. In primates, including humans, the zona incerta (ZI) plays a crucial role in regulating novelty-seeking behavior, with neurons in this subcortical region being preferentially activated by predictions of future novel objects. Additionally, the anterior ventral medial temporal cortex (AVMTC) is identified as a key brain region involved in signaling and predicting future novel objects, akin to how reward-circuitry predicts future rewards. These findings highlight the intricate network of brain areas involved in processing and representing novelty, showcasing the brain's ability to flexibly adapt to new and unfamiliar stimuli.
Does benzodiazepine addiction lead to neuron cell death?
5 answers
Benzodiazepine (BZD) addiction has been associated with potential neuronal cell death. Studies have shown that exposure to drugs that block NMDA glutamate receptors or promote GABAA receptor activation, such as benzodiazepines, during critical periods of brain development can trigger widespread apoptotic neurodegeneration in immature rodents. Additionally, chronic administration of a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist has been linked to a reduction in age-related neuronal loss in the hippocampal formation, suggesting a neuroprotective effect against degeneration. These findings highlight the neurotoxic potential of benzodiazepines, especially when exposed to developing neurons, emphasizing the importance of understanding the impact of benzodiazepine abuse on neuronal health.
How to focus on reading eye roll, focus, brain?
5 answers
Focusing on reading involves the interaction between contextual cues, lexical focus, eye movements, and brain networks. Research shows that context effectively specifies focus during reading, impacting the processing of congruous and incongruous elements. Eye-tracking studies reveal that linguistic focus leads to more detailed lexical semantic representations, influencing memory and eye movement patterns. Attentional focus during reading instruction can influence brain mechanisms, as seen in the N170 response to visual words, with grapheme-phoneme focus driving a left-lateralized response. The Landolt reading paradigm dissociates eye movements and attention from lexical and syntactic processing, highlighting brain networks for oculomotor control and attention separate from linguistic and orthographic systems. Overall, focusing on reading eye movements, focus, and brain involves a complex interplay of contextual, lexical, and attentional factors during the reading process.
What is the waves patron in cortex of animals under sleep rebound?
4 answers
During sleep rebound, the cortex of animals exhibits slow oscillatory activity characterized by alternating states of depolarization and hyperpolarization, known as slow waves. These waves originate at specific cortical locations and propagate across the cortex. Optogenetic activation of a small number of cortical neurons can trigger waves that spread throughout the cortex before involving thalamic neurons, shedding light on the generation of corticothalamic waves. In the context of stroke recovery, low-frequency, high-amplitude oscillations resembling sleep slow waves are observed in the peri-infarct zone, indicating a potential role for sleep in brain plasticity during recovery. Optogenetically induced slow waves during sleep have been shown to enhance fine motor movements in the corresponding limb after stroke, supporting the idea of sleep slow waves contributing to cortical circuit plasticity and sensorimotor recovery.
What is the current state of functional imaging research in non-model invertebrate organisms?
4 answers
Functional imaging research in non-model invertebrate organisms has seen significant advancements. Optical imaging techniques have enabled the recording and manipulation of neural activity in various species. Challenges such as rapid intracellular dynamics and cell motility have been addressed through the use of autofluorescence, quantum dots, and two-photon excitation. Lensless microscopes have broken traditional limitations, allowing large field-of-view imaging in behaving non-human primates, providing valuable insights into cortical activity. In Drosophila, two-photon calcium imaging has revolutionized neuroscience research by enabling simultaneous monitoring of single neuron activities in visual systems, offering new avenues for scientific exploration. Despite tissue heterogeneities in mammalian brains, recent advancements in matrix factorization algorithms have facilitated functional imaging of deep neuron bodies, even in the presence of scattering samples.
Dopamine release at movement initiation
5 answers
Dopamine release plays a crucial role in movement initiation. Studies have shown that dopamine signaling dynamically controls movement timing. Dopaminergic neurons exhibit transient activity before movement onset, promoting movement initiation and vigor. This transient dopamine release modulates the excitability of striatal projection neurons, increasing the probability and vigor of movement initiation. Additionally, optogenetic manipulation of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta has demonstrated that dopamine activity before movement initiation influences the probability and vigor of future movements. These findings suggest that dopamine acts as a fast system to facilitate movement initiation by modulating neuronal excitability, highlighting its essential role in the initiation of motor actions.
Higher visual JND for young adults compare to old?
5 answers
The research data suggests that older adults may exhibit a higher visual Just Noticeable Difference (JND) compared to young adults. This difference in visual acuity between age groups could be attributed to age-related changes in processing second-order or contrast-modulated (CM) stimuli, which are thought to be processed in higher visual areas and may be more susceptible to aging. Additionally, older adults have been found to show increased inhibition within the visual cortex, which is associated with reduced visual cortex plasticity. These age-related differences in visual processing may contribute to variations in JND between young and older adults, indicating that older individuals may have a higher visual JND compared to their younger counterparts.
Does information travel from thalamus to the piriform cortex?
4 answers
Yes, information does travel from the thalamus to the piriform cortex. The thalamus is a crucial relay center that modulates sensory information flow to the cortex. Thalamocortical connections play a significant role in transmitting sensory information selectively to the cortex over the background of thalamic activity, such as spindle oscillations. Additionally, the lateral geniculate nucleus, a thalamic relay, receives modulatory inputs from the visual cortex, influencing the response mode of relay cells based on attentional demands. Furthermore, the development of corticothalamic and thalamocortical tracts involves complex interactions between the cortex and thalamus, with factors like Gli3 playing a crucial role in corticothalamic pathfinding towards the piriform cortex. Therefore, the thalamus serves as a key intermediary in transmitting information to the piriform cortex.