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Who made environmental studies a compulsory subject at all levels of education? 

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It is concluded that environmental education activity must adopt a wider scope that includes political activity if progress is to be made.
These analyses revealed that Australian environmental education research can be characterised as questioning and challenging prevailing (at the time) environmental education orthodoxies by critiquing and theorising the conceptual and curriculum framing of environmental education, most commonly from a socially critical and global perspective.
Unsurprisingly, this has also been controversial as it has been taken up for a variety of reasons, including those who assume it to be a superior version of environmental education that will make potent contributions to the solution of today’s problems (see Smyth, 1995), and by those who see it as offering a structure that will be able to transcend the ‘limited’ scope of environmental education (Fien, 1993; Tilbury, 1995) elevating educational processes to a level at which ideologies deep inside environmental education may be surpassed (Huckle, 1983).
While primary school provides a semi-planned environmental education, it is obvious that in institutions of higher education environmental education is not adequate at all.
The similarities between the two reviews are evident in the identification of Science and Social Science in the compulsory years of schooling as having direct references to environmental education.
Thus, the very idea of environmental education as an educational policy goal must be examined in light of conflicting agendas of science and environmental education.
This paper questions whether efforts to introduce environmental education in the last 10‐20 years have given lasting and widespread results (are sustainable) and suggests that this work could be made more sustainable by following a systemic approach to changing the institutional framework for environmental education.
summary In the past, environmental education in Korea was not effective, in part at least, because it was not dealt with as an independent subject.
I argue that the methods of constructivist science education research are not necessarily applicable to either the (human) ‘subjects’ or subject‐matters (in an epistemological sense) of environmental education, and that poststructuralist methodologies may provide useful frames for rethinking the ways in which understandings of human subjectivity and agency are deployed in environmental education research.

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