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Showing papers on "Academic achievement published in 2000"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Researchers have succeeded in verifying its discriminant validity as well as convergent validity in predicting common motivational outcomes, such as students' activity choices, effort, persistence, and emotional reactions.

3,340 citations


Journal Article
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the ways in which teacher qualifications and other school inputs are related to student achievement across states using data from a 50-state survey of policies, state case study analyses, the 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS), and the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), and found that measures of teacher preparation and certification are by far the strongest correlates of student achievement in reading and mathematics.
Abstract: Using data from a 50-state survey of policies, state case study analyses, the 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS), and the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), this study examines the ways in which teacher qualifications and other school inputs are related to student achievement across states. The findings of both the qualitative and quantitative analyses suggest that policy investments in the quality of teachers may be related to improvements in student performance. Quantitative analyses indicate that measures of teacher preparation and certification are by far the strongest correlates of student achievement in reading and mathematics, both before and after controlling for student poverty and language status. State policy surveys and case study data are used to evaluate policies that influence the overall level of teacher qualifications within and across states. This analysis suggests that policies adopted by states regarding teacher education, licensing, hiring, and professional development may make an important difference in the qualifications and capacities that teachers bring to their work. The implications for state efforts to enhance quality and equity in public education are discussed. (Note 1)

3,053 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors address the role of multiple mastery goals and performance goals in normative goal theory and research, and propose that performance goals may be adaptive for some outcomes under a revised goal theory perspective.
Abstract: Mastery goals have been linked to adaptive outcomes in normative goal theory and research; performance goals, to less adaptive outcomes. In contrast, approach performance goals may be adaptive for some outcomes under a revised goal theory perspective. The current study addresses the role of multiple

1,981 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Using data from a 50-state survey of policies, state case study analyses, the 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS), and the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), this paper examined the ways in which teacher qualifications and other school inputs are related to student achievement across states.
Abstract: Using data from a 50-state survey of policies, state case study analyses, the 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS), and the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), this study examines the ways in which teacher qualifications and other school inputs are related to student achievement across states The findings of both the qualitative and quantitative analyses suggest that policy investments in the quality of teachers may be related to improvements in student performance Quantitative analyses indicate that measures of teacher preparation and certification are by far the strongest correlates of student achievement in reading and mathematics, both before and after controlling for student poverty and language status State policy surveys and case study data are used to evaluate policies that influence the overall level of teacher qualifications within and across states This analysis suggests that policies adopted by states regarding teacher education, licensing, hiring, and professional development may make an important difference in the qualifications and capacities that teachers bring to their work The implications for state efforts to enhance quality and equity in public education are discussed

1,567 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of collective teacher efficacy was elaborated for use in schools and an operational measure was developed, tested, and found to have strong reliability and reasonable validity, using the instrument to examine urban elementary schools in one large midwestern district.
Abstract: This article is a theoretical and empirical analysis of the construct of collective teacher efficacy. First, a model of collective efficacy was elaborated for use in schools. Then, an operational measure of collective teacher efficacy was developed, tested, and found to have strong reliability and reasonable validity. Finally, using the instrument to examine urban elementary schools in one large midwestern district, collective teacher efficacy was positively associated with differences between schools in student-level achievement in both reading and mathematics.

1,332 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is concluded that the quality of student learning as well as the will to continue learning depends closely on an interaction between the kinds of social and academic goals students bring to the classroom, the motivating properties of these goals and prevailing classroom reward structures.
Abstract: The purpose of this review is to document the directions and recent progress in our understanding of the motivational dynamics of school achievement. Based on the accumulating research it is concluded that the quality of student learning as well as the will to continue learning depends closely on an interaction between the kinds of social and academic goals students bring to the classroom, the motivating properties of these goals and prevailing classroom reward structures. Implications for school reform that follow uniquely from a motivational and goal-theory perspective are also explored.

1,252 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors empirically test how 12th-grade students of teachers with probationary certification, emergency certification, private school certification, or no certification in their subject area compare relative to students who have standard certification in the subject area.
Abstract: We empirically test how 12th-grade students of teachers with probationary certification, emergency certification, private school certification, or no certification in their subject area compare relative to students of teachers who have standard certification in their subject area. We also determine whether specific state-by-state differences in teacher licensure requirements systematically affect student achievement. In mathematics, we find teachers who have a standard certification have a statistically significant positive impact on student test scores relative to teachers who either hold private school certification or are not certified in their subject area. Contrary to conventional wisdom, mathematics and science students who have teachers with emergency credentials do no worse than students whose teachers have standard teaching credentials.

1,142 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined the relationship between professional development and the reformers' vision of teaching practice, and found that the quantity of professional development in which teachers participate is strongly linked with both inquiry-based teaching practice and investigative classroom culture.
Abstract: The current science education reform movement emphasizes the importance of professional development as a means of improving student science achievement. Reformers have developed a vision for professional development based upon intensive and sustained training around concrete tasks that is focused on subject-matter knowledge, connected to specific standards for student performance, and embedded in a systemic context. Using data from a National Science Foundation Teacher Enhancement program called the Local Systemic Change initiative, this study employs hierarchical linear modeling to examine the relationship between professional development and the reformers' vision of teaching practice. The findings indicate that the quantity of professional development in which teachers participate is strongly linked with both inquiry-based teaching practice and investigative classroom culture. At the individual level, teachers' content preparation also has a powerful influence on teaching practice and classroom culture. At the school level, school socioeconomic status was found to influence practice more substantially than either principal supportiveness or available resources.fl 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 37: 963 - 980, 2000

945 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined how adolescents perceive the nature of the opportunities they are provided by teachers and staff in middle school, and how such opportunities are related to changes in their academic and social-emotional functioning over time.
Abstract: Successful youth development during adolescence is an intergenerational process, one in which youth are responsible for being open to and taking advantage of new experiences, and adults are responsible for providing youth with nourishing, growth-enhancing opportunities. In this article, we examine how adolescents perceive the nature of the opportunities they are provided by teachers and staff in middle school, and how such opportunities are related to changes in their academic and social-emotional functioning over time. Our findings indicate that specific instructional, interpersonal, and organizational dimensions of middle school life, as perceived by adolescents themselves, are associated in important ways with the quality and character of their education- and non-education-related development during the years of early adolescence.

913 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the influence of assessment, curriculum, and professional development on teacher practice and student achievement was examined using data from a 1994 survey of California elementary school teachers and 1994 student California Learning Assessment System (CLAS) scores.
Abstract: Educational reformers increasingly seek to manipulate policies regarding assessment, curriculum, and professional development in order to improve instruction. They assume that manipulating these elements of instructional policy will change teachers’ practice, which will then improve student performance. We formalize these ideas into a rudimentary model of the relations among instructional policy, teaching, and learning. We propose that successful instructional policies are themselves instructional in nature: because teachers figure as a key connection between policy and practice, their opportunities to learn about and from policy are a crucial influence both on their practice and, at least indirectly, on student achievement. Using data from a 1994 survey of California elementary school teachers and 1994 student California Learning Assessment System (CLAS) scores, we examine the influence of assessment, curriculum, and professional development on teacher practice and student achievement. Our results bear out the usefulness of the model: under circumstances that we identify, policy can affect practice, and both can affect student performance.

891 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined both short-term and long-term consequences of students' achievement goals in an introductory psychology course and found that mastery goals positively predicted subsequent interest in the course, but not course grades.
Abstract: Why do some students excel in their college classes and develop interest in an academic discipline? The authors examined both the short-term and long-term consequences of students' achievement goals in an introductory psychology course. Mastery goals positively predicted subsequent interest in the course, but not course grades. Performance goals positively predicted grades, but not interest. Three semesters later, the authors obtained measures of continued interest in die discipline and long-term performance. Mastery goals predicted subsequent enrollment in psychology courses, whereas performance goals predicted long-term academic performance. These positive and complementary effects of mastery and performance goals on different measures of academic success are consistent with a multiple-goals perspective in which both goals can have beneficial consequences in college education.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Significant contributions of early prosocial behavior to children's developmental trajectories in academic and social domains and possible mediating processes by which prosocialness may affect academic achievement and other socially desirable developmental outcomes are proposed.
Abstract: The present longitudinal research demonstrates robust contributions of early prosocial behavior to children's developmental trajectories in academic and social domains. Both prosocial and ag- gressive behaviors in early childhood were tested as predictors of academic achievement and peer relations in adolescence 5 years later. Prosocialness included cooperating, helping, sharing, and con- soling, and the measure of antisocial aspects included proneness to verbal and physical aggression. Prosocialness had a strong positive impact on later academic achievement and social preferences, but early aggression had no significant effect on either outcome. The conceptual model accounted for 35% of variance in later academic achievement, and 37% of variance in social preferences. Additional analysis revealed that early academic achievement did not contribute to later academic achievement after controlling for effects of early prosocialness. Possible mediating processes by which prosocialness may affect academic achievement and other socially desirable devel- opmental outcomes are proposed. A major interest of parents, teachers, and societal agencies centers on discovering early predictors of children's developmental trajecto- ries, with the goal of guiding them in desirable directions (Hartup, 1985; Hays, 1994; Lewis, 1995). Such knowledge enables individuals who influence children's psychosocial development to promote so- Using a longitudinal design and structural equation modeling, we tested the relative impact of early prosocial and aggressive behaviors on children's academic achievement and social ties to their peers 5 years later. In our conceptual model, early prosocialness is negatively associated with aggressiveness, and promotes both positive peer re- lations and academic achievement. In contrast, early aggressiveness adversely affects both peer relations and academic accomplishments.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper examined the association of work-related skills to academic outcomes at the beginning of kindergarten and at the end of second grade as well as characteristics of children with low work related skills.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The purpose of this review was to identify fundamental terms within the motivation literature associated with the study of academic achievement or academic development, and to document how motivation researchers defined and used these terms within their programs of research.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors compared the adequacy of five theories to predict dropping out of high school before the 10th grade, including full mediation by academic achievement and direct effects related to general deviance, deviant affiliation, family socialization, and structural strains.
Abstract: This study compared the adequacy of 5 theories to predict dropping out of high school before the 10th grade. These theories include full mediation by academic achievement and direct effects related to general deviance, deviant affiliation, family socialization, and structural strains. Nested latent variable models were used to test these theories on prospective data from an ethnically diverse urban sample. Poor academic achievement mediated the effect of all independent factors on school dropout, although general deviance, bonding to antisocial peers, and socioeconomic status also retained direct effects on dropping out. Therefore, none of the theories tested was fully adequate to explain the data, although partial support was obtained for each theory. Implications for prevention of early high school dropout are discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A rich context of information is presented for interpreting Stanford Achievement Test scores and for describing the achievement of deaf and hard-of-hearing students.
Abstract: This article presents a rich context of information for interpreting Stanford Achievement Test scores and for describing the achievement of deaf and hard-of-hearing students The publisher's national norming of the Stanford Achievement Test provides a context of actual performance of hearing students The publisher's Performance Standards provide a context of expectations for hearing students as determined by a panel of experts The Gallaudet Research Institute's norming of the test on a national sample of deaf and hard-of-hearing students provides a context of test performance by this special population A smaller subsample of the deaf and hard-of-hearing students who take the same test levels as hearing students provides an additional reference group with respect to the Performance Standards Information from these sources is brought together into two graphical contexts to address these questions: Can the normative data from the publisher's national standardization of the test with hearing students, and the normative data from the GRI's national norming of the test with deaf and hard-of-hearing students provide a useful context for the interpretation of individual test scores? Can they provide a useful way to examine achievement of groups of students? Can the new Performance Standards defined by the test publisher offer a useful context for test score interpretation for high-achieving deaf and hard-of-hearing students?

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the integration of intellectual ability, learning style, personality and achievement motivation as predictors of academic success in higher education in the Netherlands was investigated. But no positive association with academic success was detected for the meaning directed, reproduction directed and application directed learning style.

01 Jan 2000
TL;DR: This article found that even in two California districts that are considered the most successful in teaching English to LEP students, oral proficiency takes 3 to 5 years to develop, and academic English proficiency can take 4 to 7 years.
Abstract: One of the most commonly asked questions about the education of language minority students is how long they need special services, such as English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) and bilingual education. Under the U. S. Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Civil Rights Act in Lau v. Nichols (1974), local school districts and states have an obligation to provide appropriate services to limited-English-proficient students (in California now referred to as EL or English learner students), but policy makers have long debated setting time limits for students to receive such services. The purpose of this paper is to pull together findings that directly address this question. This study reports on data from four different school districts to draw conclusions on how long it takes students to develop oral and academic English proficiency. Academic English proficiency refers to the ability to use language in academic contexts, which is particularly important for long-term success in school. Two of the data sets are from two school districts in the San Francisco Bay Area and the other two are based on summary data from reports by researchers in Canada. The data were used to analyze various forms of English proficiency as a function of length of exposure to English. The clear conclusion emerging from these data sets is that even in two California districts that are considered the most successful in teaching English to LEP students, oral proficiency takes 3 to 5 years to develop, and academic English proficiency can take 4 to 7 years. The data from the two school districts in Canada offer corroboration. Indeed, these estimates of the time it takes may be underestimates, because only students who remained the same district since kindergarten were included. While critics of bilingual education have claimed that use of the native language delays the acquisition of English (a claim that is without foundation in the academic literature on bilingualism), it is worth noting that only one of the three districts offered bilingual education. The analysis also revealed continuing and widening gap between EL students and native English speakers. The gap illustrates the daunting task facing these students, who not only have to acquire oral and academic English, but also have to keep pace with native English speakers, who continue to develop their language skills. It may simply not be possible, within the constraints of the time available in regular formal school hours, to offer efficient instruction that would enable the EL students to catch up with the rest. Alternatives such as special summer and after-school programs may be needed. The results suggest that policies that assume rapid acquisition of English – the extreme case being Proposition 227 that explicitly calls for “sheltered English immersion during a temporary transition period not normally intended to exceed one year” – are wildly unrealistic. A much more sensible policy would be one that sets aside the entire spectrum of the elementary grades as the realistic range within which English acquisition is accomplished, and plans a balanced curriculum that pays attention not just to English, but to the full array of academic needs of the students.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article investigated whether working memory abilities are also associated with attainment levels in the national curriculum assessments at 7 years of age and found that children with low levels of curriculum attainment showed marked impairments on measures of central executive function and of visuo-spatial memory in particular.
Abstract: Background. Close links between children's capacities to store and manipulate information over brief periods have been found with achievements on standardised measures of vocabulary, language comprehension, reading, and mathematics. Aim. The study aimed to investigate whether working memory abilities are also associated with attainment levels in the national curriculum assessments at 7 years of age. Sample. Eighty-three children aged 6 and 7 years attending local education authority schools participated in the study. Methods. Working memory skills were assessed by a test battery designed to tap individual components of Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) working memory model. Children were assigned to normal and low achievement groups on the basis of their performance on national curriculum tasks and tests in the areas of English and mathematics. Results. Children with low levels of curriculum attainment showed marked impairments on measures of central executive function and of visuo-spatial memory in particular. A single cut-off score derived from the test battery successfully identified the majority of the children failing to reach nationally expected levels of attainment. Conclusions. Complex working memory skills are closely linked with children's academic progress within the early years of school. The assessment of working memory skills may offer a valuable method for screening children likely to be at risk of poor scholastic progress.




Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a meta-analysis of cross-time relations of academic/cognitive and social/behavioral assessments from preschool to second grade is presented. But no quantitative estimates of effect sizes exist for the relations between preschool or kindergarten academic/Cognitive and Social/behaviorAL assessments and early school outcomes.
Abstract: School readiness screenings are prevalent throughout the United States. Although readiness encompasses a multitude of components, readiness assessments generally focus on measuring and predicting children's pre-academic skills and behaviors and are often the basis for placement and programming decisions. However, no quantitative estimates of effect sizes exist for the relations between preschool or kindergarten academic/cognitive and social/behavioral assessments and early school outcomes. This review presents the results of a meta-analysis of cross-time relations of academic/cognitive and social/behavioral assessments from preschool to second grade. Results from 70 longitudinal studies that reported correlations between academic/cognitive and social/behavioral measures administered in preschool or kindergarten and similar measures administered in first and second grade were included in the analysis. Academic/cognitive assessments predicting similar outcomes showed moderate effect sizes across both time s...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored multiple predictors of high school dropout across development, including early home environment, quality of early caregiving, socioeconomic status, IQ, behavior problems, academic achievement, peer relations, and parent involvement.

Book
25 May 2000
TL;DR: Examination of age differences in the operation of beliefs-performance cycles and the effects of these cycles on the development of children's perceived control and classroom engagement from the third to the seventh grade suggests the aspects of control around which these cycles are organized change with development.
Abstract: Research on individual differences demonstrates that children's perceived control exerts a strong effect on their academic achievement and that, in turn, children's actual school performance influences their sense of control. At the same time, developmental research shows systematic age-graded changes in the processes that children use to regulate and interpret control experiences. Drawing on both these perspectives, the current study examines (1) age differences in the operation of beliefs-performance cycles and (2) the effects of these cycles on the development of children's perceived control and classroom engagement from the third to the seventh grade. Longitudinal data on about 1,600 children were collected six times (every fall and spring) over 3 consecutive school years, including children's reports of their perceived control and individual interactions with teachers; teachers' reports of each student's engagement in class; and, for a subset of students, grades and achievement tests. Analyses of individual differences and individual growth curves (estimated using hierarchical linear modeling procedures) were consistent, not only with a cyclic model of context, self, action, and outcomes, but also with predictors of individual development over 5 years from grade 3 to grade 7. Children who experienced teachers as warm and contingent were more likely to develop optimal profiles of control; these beliefs supported more active engagement in the classroom, resulting in better academic performance; success in turn predicted the maintenance of optimistic beliefs about the effectiveness of effort. In contrast, children who experienced teachers as unsupportive were more likely to develop beliefs that emphasized external causes; these profiles of control predicted escalating classroom disaffection and lower scholastic achievement; in turn, these poor performances led children to increasingly doubt their own capacities and to believe even more strongly in the power of luck and unknown causes. Systematic age differences in analyses suggested that the aspects of control around which these cycles are organized change with development. The beliefs that regulated engagement shifted from effort to ability and from beliefs about the causes of school performance (strategy beliefs) to beliefs about the self's capacities. The feedback loop from individual performance to subsequent perceived control also became more pronounced and more focused on ability. These relatively linear developmental changes may have contributed to an abrupt decline in children's classroom engagement as they negotiated the transition to middle school and experienced losses in teacher support. Implications are discussed for future study of individual differences and development, especially the role of changing school contexts, mechanisms of influence, and developmentally appropriate interventions to optimize children's perceived control and engagement.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper examined the role of school climate in identifying and modifying climates in which academic failure and antisocial behavior emerge, and concluded that the success of prevention and intervention programs depends on their ability to identify and modify climates that can be identified that reasonably predict problematic behavior and can be modified to reduce such behavior.
Abstract: Researchers have demonstrated a strong correlation between antisocial behavior and academic failure among students.Yet current educational programs designed to modify one or both of these patterns of conduct tend to be limited in at least two fundamental ways. First, they tend to treat conditions associated with academic achievement as separate from those associated with violent or other antisocial behavior. Second, they often focus narrowly on modifying selected cognitions or personality characteristics of the individual (e.g., changing attitudes and beliefs).Yet both antisocial behavior and academic failure are context specific; each occurs within a climate in which conditions can be identified that reasonably predict problematic behavior and can be modified to reduce such behavior.The success of prevention and intervention programs, therefore, hinges on their ability to identify and modify climates in which academic failure and antisocial behavior emerge. In this article we examine the role of school c...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the main and interactive effects of psychological, family, and school factors on students' grade point average across the middle school transition were examined for 62 African American families living in poverty.
Abstract: In this study of 62 African American families living in poverty, we examined the main and interactive effects of psychological, family, and school factors on students' grade point average across the middle school transition. Both parent interviews and student surveys were collected, resulting in three major findings. First, students experienced a significant decline in grade point average across the transition from elementary to middle school. Second, students who felt more academically efficacious had higher grade point averages across the transition than did their peers. Third, significant interactions were found between family and school factors. These results suggest that rather than focusing exclusively on either parental involvement or the school environment, the combination of both family and school factors may be most effective in supporting the academic achievement of poor African American students during the transition to middle level schools.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of student motivation on performance in Web-based instruction (WBI) were examined and the applicability of the self-efficacy theory to WBI contexts was tested.
Abstract: Effects of student motivation on performance in Web-based instruction (WBI) were examined. In particular, applicability of the self-efficacy theory to WBI contexts was tested. A total of 152 junior high school students in Seoul, Korea, participated in WBI during regular science classes. Participants completed motivational surveys before the onset of WBI and took the written and search tests at the end of WBI. Path analyses revealed that students' self-efficacy for self-regulated learning positively related to their academic self-efficacy, strategy use, and Internet self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy predicted students' performance on the written test, which comprised problems on topics covered during the previous WBI sessions. Students' scores on the WBI search test were significantly and positively predicted by their self-efficacy in using the Internet. More interesting, students' academic self-efficacy beliefs were not able to predict their search test performance, whereas students' Internet self-efficacy beliefs were not able to predict their written test performance.

DOI
01 Apr 2000
TL;DR: Three students preparing to read and discuss a chapter from Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, sit in a literature circle and hope that their attempts to learn from this novel prove successful as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Three students preparing to read and discuss a chapter from Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, sit in a literature circle and hope that their attempts to learn from this novel prove successful. One of the students, Ralph, has been struggling because the world of Huck Finn seems alien to him. He does not understand why Huck Finn finds the river a place of escape and freedom because he knows rivers only from glimpses from the family car. He also finds the language of the runaway slave, Jim, strange. Despite these impediments, Ralph is fascinated with the character of Huck Finn and the interesting predicaments that Huck faces. Because of this interest, Ralph is determined to learn more about Huck’s adventures. Clare faces other challenges than Ralph. She has already read several of Mark Twain’s short stories and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in junior high school. Through these previous exposures, Clare has an adequate understanding of Twain’s satiric style. She is also aware of his interest in exploring the psyche of young male characters striving for adventure. She has also learned to read the dialect aloud to get the meaning. However, Clare does not find Huckleberry Finn interesting. She cannot relate to the mostly male

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the contributions that perceived parenting style, current relationships with parents, and psychological well-being variables make toward perceived overall adjustment to university, from both socio/emotional adaptation perspectives and actual academic achievement.
Abstract: One understudied aspect of first-year students’transition to university is their relationship with parents. This study investigates the contributions that perceived parenting style, current relationships with parents, and psychological well-being variables make toward perceived overall adjustment to university, from both socio/emotional adaptation perspectives and actual academic achievement. Data were collected from a sample of 408 (116 males and 292 females) first-year students attending university in a large metropolitan Canadian city. Results indicated that mutual reciprocity and discussion with parents, as well as the psychological well-being variables, have direct links to adjustment to university. There was an indirect, positive relationship between authoritative parenting and adaptation variables. Furthermore, the predictor variables differed by both gender and outcome measures. Interpretation of these results, their congruence within the context of the theoretical frameworks, and practical implic...