Showing papers on "Class (philosophy) published in 2016"

An Approach to Intensional Analysis

Abstract: One cannot understand the word 'dog' unless one knows how to distinguish dogs from other objects, unless one has a way of discriminating between dogs and non-dogs. We may well be quite in the dark about how we come to possess such criteria and how we come to share them with other people, but we can hardly help assuming that we do possess and share them. For what can my understanding of 'dog' consist in if not a link in my mind between the word and a suitable dog-discriminating procedure? And how can my uttering 'Fred is not a dog' convey what I mean to Jones unless he associates with 'dog' the same criterion as I do? The same, for that matter, applies to 'Fred'; only here it is perhaps more suitable to speak of an identification procedure, since, in carrying it out, we pinpoint one single individual-Fred. The dog-discriminating procedure can, of course, be thought of as an identification procedure as well: as a procedure whose application to an individual results in identification of one of two objects, say truth and falsehood; moreover, applied to all individuals in the universe of discourse, it identifies a definite class-the class of dogs. In the name-intension-extension triangle it is the second vertex that has always been a matter of controversy. However, equating the intensions of terms like 'dog' and 'Fred' with identification procedures in the above sense may well be one of the least suspicious ways of construing them. Such procedures undoubtedly belong to the realm of abstract entities but possibly to the least objectionable section thereof. While I do believe that an ontological split of the world into things and identification procedures is an inevitable prerequisite to any satisfactory philosophy of language, this is not a point I intend to press here. What I am out to show in this paper is that thinking of intensions as identification pro-

Distribution-Specific Hardness of Learning Neural Networks

Abstract: Although neural networks are routinely and successfully trained in practice using simple gradient-based methods, most existing theoretical results are negative, showing that learning such networks is difficult, in a worst-case sense over all data distributions. In this paper, we take a more nuanced view, and consider whether specific assumptions on the "niceness" of the input distribution, or "niceness" of the target function (e.g. in terms of smoothness, non-degeneracy, incoherence, random choice of parameters etc.), are sufficient to guarantee learnability using gradient-based methods. We provide evidence that neither class of assumptions alone is sufficient: On the one hand, for any member of a class of "nice" target functions, there are difficult input distributions. On the other hand, we identify a family of simple target functions, which are difficult to learn even if the input distribution is "nice". To prove our results, we develop some tools which may be of independent interest, such as extending Fourier-based hardness techniques developed in the context of statistical queries \cite{blum1994weakly}, from the Boolean cube to Euclidean space and to more general classes of functions.

A Class of Reversible Primitive Recursive Functions

Abstract: Reversible computing is bi-deterministic which means that its execution is both forward and backward deterministic, i.e. next/previous computational step is uniquely determined. Various approaches exist to catch its extensional or intensional aspects and properties. We present a class RPRF of reversible functions which holds at bay intensional aspects and emphasizes the extensional side of the reversible computation by following the style of Dedekind-Robinson Primitive Recursive Functions. The class RPRF is closed by inversion, can only express bijections on integers - not only natural numbers -, and it is expressive enough to simulate Primitive Recursive Functions, of course, in an effective way.

When intensions do not map onto extensions: Individual differences in conceptualization.

Abstract: Concepts are represented in the mind through knowledge of their extensions (the class of items to which the concept applies) and intensions (features that distinguish that class of items). A common assumption among theories of concepts is that the 2 aspects are intimately related. Hence if there is systematic individual variation in concept representation, the variation should correlate between extensional and intensional measures. A pair of individuals with similar extensional beliefs about a given concept should also share similar intensional beliefs. To test this notion, exemplars (extensions) and features (intensions) of common categories were rated for typicality and importance respectively across 2 occasions. Within-subject consistency was greater than between-subjects consensus on each task, providing evidence for systematic individual variation. Furthermore, the similarity structure between individuals for each task was stable across occasions. However, across 5 samples, similarity between individuals for extensional judgments did not map onto similarity between individuals for intensional judgments. The results challenge the assumption common to many theories of conceptual representation that intensions determine extensions and support a hybrid view of concepts where there is a disconnection between the conceptual resources that are used for the 2 tasks.

Anthropology and the study of gender

Abstract: paper was prepared for a lecture series entitled "Studying Women: The Impact on the Social Sciences and Humanities." I might have followed the general theme of the series by calling my own paper "Anthropology and the Study of Women." I felt it important, however, to define my subject as the study of gender rather than the study of women. Let me begin by discussing why I considered this reformulation necessary. The anthropological studies of sex roles that have appeared in recent years have been primarily studies of women. This is not surprising, since the resurgence of feminism in the 1960s led to a growing interest in the question of gender in various academic fields.1 There are problems, however, in defining our enterprise as the study of women, and the first I would like to point out is what can be called the problem oimarkedness. I borrow this term from linguists and semioticians, who use it to refer to an asymmetrical relationship between a pair of categories that constitute complementary opposites within some larger class.2 The terms "man" and "woman," for example, serve to contrast male and female members of the larger class of human beings; as such, they appear to be complementary opposites. At the same time, the term "man," as we know, can be used in a more general sense to contrast the human species as a whole with some other category. Thus, the terms "man" and "woman" designate

What’s Wrong with That Object? Identifying Images of Unusual Objects by Modelling the Detection Score Distribution

Abstract: This paper studies the challenging problem of identifying unusual instances of known objects in images within an "open world" setting. That is, we aim to find objects that are members of a known class, but which are not typical of that class. Thus the "unusual object" should be distinguished from both the "regular object" and the "other objects". Such unusual objects may be of interest in many applications such as surveillance or quality control. We propose to identify unusual objects by inspecting the distribution of object detection scores at multiple image regions. The key observation motivating our approach is that "regular object" images, "unusual object" images and "other objects" images exhibit different region-level scores in terms of both the score values and the spatial distributions. To model these distributions we propose to use Gaussian Processes (GP) to construct two separate generative models, one for the "regular object" and the other for the "other objects". More specifically, we design a new covariance function to simultaneously model the detection score at a single location and the score dependencies between multiple regions. We demonstrate that the proposed approach outperforms comparable methods on a new large dataset constructed for the purpose.

“Differentiated Instruction”: Solusi Pembelajaran dalam Keberagaman Siswa di Kelas Inklusif

Abstract: Education must be able to accommodate towards to all those differences, and must provide all the students need as well encouraging them to actively participate in the learning process. The teaching process in class is still not giving the best support towards each student’s need. Most teachers still have a mindset that all students must have the same ability and has no clue how to probe the students need. The teaching process that’s been given are usually seem monotone and still using the teacher centered procedure, this procedure will hampering the critical thinking of students. I will share about the implementation from one of learning model which is differentiating instruction. This model can accommodate diversity students based on different readiness levels, interests and learning profile.

On Aristotle's Example

Abstract: tingent affairs; it is a nonexhaustive examination of the members of a class; and it begins with a particular (a part, or specifie) and eventuates in another particular. Disagreement arises over the question of how it moves from one particular to the other. Aristotle declares in two separate passages that the example is reasoning from "part to part" {Prior Analy tics, 69al4-15; Rhetoric, 1357b28-29), but while he contrasts it with reasoning from part to whole, whole to part, and whole to whole, nowhere does he explicitly rule out the possibility that his phrase "part to part" could be shorthand for "part to whole to part." Hence, it is conceivable that the whole (or universal or generalization) is typically implicit, consistent with his treatment of enthymeme.3 Herein lies the fundamental controversy: Is Aristotle's conception of example {παράδeιγμα, paradeigma) mediated by a generalization? Gerard Hauser's latest essay begins with a quotation from Fa

Predicting Disengagement in Free-to-Play Games with Highly Biased Data

Abstract: A vital application of game data mining is to predict player behaviour trends such as disengagement, purchase, etc.. Several works have been done by quantitative methods in the last decade. Generally, predicting player behaviour trends is a classification problem where class labels of instances are decided by predefined definitions. However, as the majority of current definitions distribute players into classes only by satisfying specific conditions, a highly biased class distribution may be led to if few (or most) players can satisfy these conditions. In this work, a new definition named trend over varying dates that can create balanced class distribution will be introduced and, as an example, disengagement prediction will be used to show how the definition works. Experiments on three commercial mobile games will show how this definition can be applied to games of various genres. Finally, the performance of this definition towards predicting disengagement will be compared with another disengagement concept called churn’. Both game-specific and event frequency based data representation (introduced in previous work) will be applied to represent the datasets for predictions. Results indicate that the definition of ‘trend over varying dates’ can improve the predictive performance by balancing the class distributions in most cases.

Identifying Crucial Know-How and Knowing-That for Medical Decision Support

Abstract: In this paper, the authors propose a multi-criteria methodology for identifying "Crucial Know-How/Knowing-That". Know-How and Knowing-That are two kinds of knowledge. Know-How is a disposition to perform a type of action whereas Knowing-That is a belief state and concerns a description which can be factual or propositional. The category of "crucial Know-How/Knowing-That" represents the subset of Know-How/Knowing-That sufficient for Know-How/Knowing-That capitalization. The authors are interested in special Know-How/Knowing-that called "Likely Crucial Know-How/Knowing-That" which represent the set of Know-How/Knowing-That under validation and experimentation and can be crucial in the short or medium term. For thus, a new decision class is attributed to this category of Know-How/Knowing-That. The methodology is composed of three phases: i the construction of the preference model of decision maker, ii the evaluation of "crucial Know-How/Knowing-That" and iii the sorting of this set of Know-How/Knowing-That. The methodology is experimented in the ASHMS organization and validated in the medical field.

Game Semantics for Martin-Löf Type Theory

Abstract: We present a new game semantics for Martin-Lof type theory (MLTT), our aim is to give a mathematical and intensional explanation of MLTT. Specifically, we propose a category with families of a novel variant of games, which induces a surjective and injective (when Id-types are excluded) interpretation of the intensional variant of MLTT equipped with unit-, empty-, N-, dependent product, dependent sum and Id-types as well as the cumulative hierarchy of universes for the first time in the literature (as far as we are aware), though the surjectivity is accomplished merely by an inductive definition of a certain class of games and strategies. Our games generalize the existing notion of games, and achieve an interpretation of dependent types and the hierarchy of universes in an intuitive yet mathematically precise manner, our strategies can be seen as algorithms underlying programs (or proofs) in MLTT. A more fine-grained interpretation of Id-types is left as future work.

Einstein-Rosen "Bridge" Revisited and Lightlike Thin-Shell Wormholes

Abstract: We study in some detail the properties of the mathematically correct formulation of the classical Einstein-Rosen "bridge" as proposed in the original 1935 paper, which was shown in a series of previous papers of ours to represent the simplest example of a static spherically symmetric traversable lightlike thin-shell wormhole. Thus, the original Einstein-Rosen "bridge" is not equivalent to the concept of the dynamical and non-traversable Schwarzschild wormhole, also called "Einstein-Rosen bridge" in modern textbooks on general relativity. The original Einstein-Rosen "bridge" requires the presence of a special kind of "exotic" matter source located on its throat which was shown to be the simplest member of the previously introduced by us class of lightlike membranes. We introduce and exploit the Kruskal-Penrose description of the original Einstein-Rosen "bridge". In particular, we explicitly construct closed timelike geodesics on the pertinent Kruskal-Penrose manifold.

Universal Algebraic Methods for Constraint Satisfaction Problems

Abstract: After substantial progress over the last 15 years, the "algebraic CSP-dichotomy conjecture" reduces to the following: every local constraint satisfaction problem (CSP) associated with a finite idempotent algebra is tractable if and only if the algebra has a Taylor term operation. Despite the tremendous achievements in this area (including recently announce proofs of the general conjecture), there remain examples of small algebras with just a single binary operation whose CSP resists direct classification as either tractable or NP-complete using known methods. In this paper we present some new methods for approaching such problems, with particular focus on those techniques that help us attack the class of finite algebras known as "commutative idempotent binars" (CIBs). We demonstrate the utility of these methods by using them to prove that every CIB of cardinality at most 4 yields a tractable CSP.

Iranian Nursesâ?? Perspective on Non-Resuscitation: Content Analysis

Abstract: This study was conducted to evaluate the Iranian nurses’ perspective about non cardiopulmonary resuscitation.This study is Directed qualitative content analysis and analyzed the perspectives of 8 nurses on different aspects of the formulation of non-Resuscitation guidelines through semi-structured in-depth interviews (40 to 60 minutes). An interview guide was set based on the categories, and tips were provided for conducting interviews and performing the related codification in each class after analyzing the interviews. In the “professional” category, 4 codes of "futile care", "stereotyped care", "fear of distrust" and "moral distress"; in the “patient and family” category, 2 codes of "selfishness vs. sacrifice" and "protection of human dignity"; in the “moral” category, one code of "lack of understanding of the meaning of morality"; in the “legal” category, 2 codes of " fear of the law" and "fear of accusation of the nurse "; in the “religious” category, 3 codes of , "fate", "forgiveness of sins", and "miracle"; and in the “economic” category, one code of "money as a facilitating or hindering factor" were extracted.In the formulation of non-Resuscitation guidelines, it is necessary to pay special attention to the Iranian context and the extracted codes such as respect for human dignity, fate, miracle, lack of understanding of the meaning of morality, fear of accusation of nurses, and economic costs.

Tekhne after c apital / life after work

Abstract: For a long time we have been used to thinking the relation, on the one hand, between language and tekhne and, on the other, between capital and the technical or technological. And yet, for all the parallels that might be drawn between these two projects, it seems to me quite clear that they remain to be articulated in a way that does justice to either one. It is, moreover, entirely symptomatic ofthe failure of this articulation that almost all the parallels that have been drawn, in decades past, between capital and language?in the name of "political economies ofthe sign," for example, or of "symbolic economies"2? have been drawn without regard, precisely, to technical implications, and thus to the implication of capital and of language in and by the technical. What we might call, for purposes of exposition, the missing link?the term that would make this articulation possible?is, I will argue, labor and therefore, by extension, life. That this extension can be made with reference to Marx is by now axiomatic. Wasn't the point of all the charges of "economic determinism" and "class reductionism" that there is, in the end, "more to life" than work? That this extension must be made with reference to Marx is, however, a very different proposition and one that deserves a closer look. How does the notion that, for Marx, labor and life are coextensive stand up to close reading of his text? I shall begin with a fairly programmatic exposition of what I call Marx's two codefinitions of labor in Capital, the first being his definition of labor as a function of the human, the second being his definition of labor as a function of the living body. Each definition is a codefinition insofar as its converse is also true?insofar as, for Marx, the humanity of man and the life of his body are each, in turn, a function of work.

Einstein-Rosen "Bridge" Revisited and Lightlike Thin-Shell Wormholes

Abstract: We study in some detail the properties of the mathematically correct formulation of the classical Einstein-Rosen "bridge" as proposed in the original 1935 paper, which was shown in a series of previous papers of ours to represent the simplest example of a static spherically symmetric traversable lightlike thin-shell wormhole. Thus, the original Einstein-Rosen "bridge" is not equivalent to the concept of the dynamical and non-traversable Schwarzschild wormhole, also called "Einstein-Rosen bridge" in modern textbooks on general relativity. The original Einstein-Rosen "bridge" requires the presence of a special kind of "exotic" matter source located on its throat which was shown to be the simplest member of the previously introduced by us class of lightlike membranes. We introduce and exploit the Kruskal-Penrose description of the original Einstein-Rosen "bridge". In particular, we explicitly construct closed timelike geodesics on the pertinent Kruskal-Penrose manifold.

Extracting frame conditions from operation contracts.

Abstract: In behavioral modeling, operation contracts defined by pre- and postconditions describe the effects on model properties (i.e., model elements such as attributes, links, etc.) that are enforced by an operation. However, it is usually omitted which model properties should not be modified. Defining so-called frame conditions can fill this gap. But, thus far, these have to be defined manually - a time-consuming task. In this work, we propose a methodology which aims to support the modeler in the definition of the frame conditions by extracting suggestions based on an automatic analysis of operation contracts provided in OCL. More precisely, the proposed approach performs a structural analysis of pre- and postconditions together with invariants in order to categorize which class and object properties are clearly "variable" or "unaffected" - and which are "ambiguous", i.e. indeed require a more thorough inspection. The developed concepts are implemented as a prototype and evaluated by means of several example models known from the literature.

Perceptions of Criminality: An Experiment on Race, Class, and Gender Stereotypes

Abstract: .........................................................................................................

Section B: Race-Class Stereotypes

Abstract: R ESEARCH ON RACIAL STEREOTYPES USUALLY INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING PROCEDURE. The subjects are asked to select from a list of characteristics those they think apply to given racial groups-"White Americans", "the Negro", "the Jew", etc. It has often been demonstrated that this procedure yields definite, racelinked stereotypes.1' 2 3. 4 It would appear, however, that there is at least one possible fallacy in this approach. The results of such research carry the implication that the possessors of a given stereotype do not make subgroup distinctions within the larger group being stereotyped. For example, are white Americans aware of class differences among Negroes; do those who stereotype "the Negro" as being "lazy," "superstitious," "'happy-golucky," and "physically-dirty" regard these characteristics as being equally typical for upperand lower-class Negroes? If the subjects in research on stereotypes were given an opportunity to make such sub-group distinctions, patterns might emerge which are different from those attached to the group-at-large. The present research investigates racial stereotypes in terms of class within race. It is our hypothesis that racial stereotypes vary according to class-designations within the races being stereotyped. In addition, the design is such that the prepotency of

Instance-level matching

Abstract: This paper describes precisely an ontology matching technique based on the extensional definition of a class as set of instances. It first provides a general characterisation of such techniques and, in particular the need to rely on links across data sets in order to compare instances. We then detail the implication intensity measure that has been chosen. The resulting algorithm is implemented and evaluated on XLore, DBPedia, LinkedGeoData and Geospecies.

Reinhardt Grossmann's Ontological Reduction

Abstract: This book [1] is concerned to evaluate various attempts at "ontological reduction" and to elaborate a general ontology. After an Introduction which, to some extent, offers an epistemological underpinning to the ontology, there are three main Parts. The first deals with numbers, attacks as misconceived various ontologically parsimonious discussions of their status, and advances Grossmann's own positive views about their nature. The second deals with properties and classes, mounts a similar attack upon ontological parsimony here, and uses an invigorating discussion of Russellian-style paradoxes as a basis for arguing that not every class determines a property and vice versa, thus further emphasizing their ontological distinctiveness. The third Part distinguishes various different senses of "part" and "whole" and argues that, in each case, it is mistaken to assume that one need include only the parts and not the whole in an inventory of what fundamentally there is. (Grossmann does not discuss the monistic elimination of the parts in favor of the whole, which is surely both historically and intellectually quite as significant an attempted "reduction".) In conclusion, there is a list of the basic ontological categories recognized by Grossmann. The book can be recommended both for the interest of Grossmann's own ontological position and for the subtle discussions of a host of theories, new and old, about the matters indicated, including the work of such philosophers as Frege, Russell, Quine, and Goodman. It seems to me that Grossmann's is often the voice of a highly sophisticated common sense objecting to a wide variety of wild, and on occasion shabby, claims, including those which rest upon such suppositions as that definitions of certain sorts can somehow summon entities into being or construct them, as opposed to simply identify them (cf. passages starting at each of p. 64, p. 90, and p. 102) or that one can define Xs as Ys of a certain sort and dispense with a distinct category of the former, simply because the latter have all those formal properties of theirs which need to be considered in performing certain sorts of calculation (cf. pp. 102ff). It must be said, on the other hand, that there is something a trifle rigid and dogmatic about Grossmann's style of philosophizing in this book. Argument often proceeds from merely 'stated premisses of a quite controversial nature (cf. pp. 87, 90, and 161), supported sometimes by an appeal to the "obvious facts of experience" (cf. pp. 9 and 152), when Grossmann must know that there are any number of philosophers who will deny that experience reveals any such thing to them.

Properties of Polynomial Identity Quantized Weyl Algebras

Abstract: In this work on Polynomial Identity (PI) quantized Weyl algebras we begin with a brief survey of Poisson geometry and quantum cluster algebras, before using these as tools to classify the possible centers of such algebras in two different ways. In doing so we explicitly calculate the formulas of the discriminants of these algebras in terms of a general class of central polynomial subalgebras. From this we can classify all members of this family of algebras free over their centers while proving that their discriminants have the properties of effectiveness and local domination. Applying these results to the family of tensor products of PI quantized Weyl algebras we solve the automorphism and isomorphism problems.