Showing papers on "Competence (human resources) published in 2017"

Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness

Abstract: I. Introduction 1. Self-Determination Theory: An Introduction and Overview II. Philosophical and Historical Considerations 2. Organismic Principles: Historical Perspectives on Development and Integration in Living Entities 3. Human Autonomy: Philosophical Perspectives and the Phenomenology of Self 4. Psychological Needs: Varied Concepts and a Preliminary Description of Self-Determination Theory's Approach 5. A Brief History of Intrinsic Motivation III. The Six Mini-Theories of Self-Determination Theory 6. Cognitive Evaluation Theory, Part I: The Effects of Rewards, Feedback, and Other External Events on Intrinsic Motivation 7. Cognitive Evaluation Theory, Part II: Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Processes Affecting Intrinsic Motivation 8. Organismic Integration Theory: Internalization and the Differentiation of Extrinsic Motivation 9. Causality Orientations Theory: Individual Differences in, and Priming of, Motivational Orientations 10. Basic Psychological Needs Theory: Satisfaction and Frustration of Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in Relation to Psychological Wellness and Illness 11. Goal Contents Theory: Aspirations, Life Goals, and Their Varied Consequences 12. Relationships Motivation Theory: The Self in Close Relationships IV. Motivation and Human Development in Families, Schools, and Societies 13. Parenting and the Facilitation of Autonomy and Well-Being in Development 14. Schools as Contexts for Learning and Social Development 15. Identity Development, Self-Esteem, and Authenticity 16. Development, Psychological Needs, and Psychopathology V. The Application and Practice of Self-Determination Theory in Multiple Domains 17. Psychotherapy and Behavior Change: Creating Facilitating Environments 18. Health Care and Patient Need Satisfaction: Supporting Maintained Health Behavior Change 19. Sport, Physical Activity, and Physical Education 20. Motivation and Need Satisfaction in Video Games and Virtual Environments 21. Work and Organizations: Promoting Wellness and Productivity VI. Basic Psychological Needs in Pervasive Social Contexts 22. Pervasive Social Influences, Part I: Cultural Contexts 23. Pervasive Social Influences, Part II: Economic and Political Systems 24. On Basic Needs and Human Natures: Altruism, Aggression, and the Bright and Dark Sides of Human Motivation A Very Brief Epilogue References Author Index Subject Index

European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators:DigCompEdu

Abstract: As the teaching professions face rapidly changing demands, educators require an increasingly broad and more sophisticated set of competences than before. In particular the ubiquity of digital devices and the duty to help students become digitally competent requires educators to develop their own digital competence. On International and national level a number of frameworks, self-assessment tools and training programmes have been developed to describe the facets of digital competence for educators and to help them assess their competence, identify their training needs and offer targeted training. Analysing and clustering these instruments, this report presents a common European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators (DigCompEdu). DigCompEdu is a scientifically sound background framework which helps to guide policy and can be directly adapted to implement regional and national tools and training programmes. In addition, it provides a common language and approach that will help the dialogue and exchange of best practices across borders. The DigCompEdu framework is directed towards educators at all levels of education, from early childhood to higher and adult education, including general and vocational training, special needs education, and non-formal learning contexts. It aims to provide a general reference frame for developers of Digital Competence models, i.e. Member States, regional governments, relevant national and regional agencies, educational organisations themselves, and public or private professional training providers.

Social-Emotional Competence: An Essential Factor for Promoting Positive Adjustment and Reducing Risk in School Children.

Abstract: Social-emotional competence is a critical factor to target with universal preventive interventions that are conducted in schools because the construct (a) associates with social, behavioral, and academic outcomes that are important for healthy development; (b) predicts important life outcomes in adulthood; (c) can be improved with feasible and cost-effective interventions; and (d) plays a critical role in the behavior change process. This article reviews this research and what is known about effective intervention approaches. Based on that, an intervention model is proposed for how schools should enhance the social and emotional learning of students in order to promote resilience. Suggestions are also offered for how to support implementation of this intervention model at scale.

Health literacy in childhood and youth: a systematic review of definitions and models

Abstract: Children and young people constitute a core target group for health literacy research and practice: during childhood and youth, fundamental cognitive, physical and emotional development processes take place and health-related behaviours and skills develop. However, there is limited knowledge and academic consensus regarding the abilities and knowledge a child or young person should possess for making sound health decisions. The research presented in this review addresses this gap by providing an overview and synthesis of current understandings of health literacy in childhood and youth. Furthermore, the authors aim to understand to what extent available models capture the unique needs and characteristics of children and young people. Six databases were systematically searched with relevant search terms in English and German. Of the n = 1492 publications identified, N = 1021 entered the abstract screening and N = 340 full-texts were screened for eligibility. A total of 30 articles, which defined or conceptualized generic health literacy for a target population of 18 years or younger, were selected for a four-step inductive content analysis. The systematic review of the literature identified 12 definitions and 21 models that have been specifically developed for children and young people. In the literature, health literacy in children and young people is described as comprising variable sets of key dimensions, each appearing as a cluster of related abilities, skills, commitments, and knowledge that enable a person to approach health information competently and effectively and to derive at health-promoting decisions and actions. Identified definitions and models are very heterogeneous, depicting health literacy as multidimensional, complex construct. Moreover, health literacy is conceptualized as an action competence, with a strong focus on personal attributes, while also recognising its interrelatedness with social and contextual determinants. Life phase specificities are mainly considered from a cognitive and developmental perspective, leaving children’s and young people’s specific needs, vulnerabilities, and social structures poorly incorporated within most models. While a critical number of definitions and models were identified for youth or secondary school students, similar findings are lacking for children under the age of ten or within a primary school context.

Core principles of assessment in competency-based medical education

Abstract: The meaningful assessment of competence is critical for the implementation of effective competency-based medical education (CBME). Timely ongoing assessments are needed along with comprehensive periodic reviews to ensure that trainees continue to progress. New approaches are needed to optimize the use of multiple assessors and assessments; to synthesize the data collected from multiple assessors and multiple types of assessments; to develop faculty competence in assessment; and to ensure that relationships between the givers and receivers of feedback are appropriate. This paper describes the core principles of assessment for learning and assessment of learning. It addresses several ways to ensure the effectiveness of assessment programs, including using the right combination of assessment methods and conducting careful assessor selection and training. It provides a reconceptualization of the role of psychometrics and articulates the importance of a group process in determining trainees' progress. In addition, it notes that, to reach its potential as a driver in trainee development, quality care, and patient safety, CBME requires effective information management and documentation as well as ongoing consideration of ways to improve the assessment system.

Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers.

Abstract: Summary Teachers are the engine that drives social and emotional learning (SEL) programs and practices in schools and classrooms, and their own social-emotional competence and wellbeing strongly influence their students. Classrooms with warm teacher-child relationships support deep learning and positive social and emotional development among students, writes Kimberly Schonert-Reichl. But when teachers poorly manage the social and emotional demands of teaching, students' academic achievement and behavior both suffer. If we don't accurately understand teachers' own social-emotional wellbeing and how teachers influence students' SEL, says Schonert-Reichl, we can never fully know how to promote SEL in the classroom. How can we boost teachers' social-emotional competence, and how can we help them create the kind of classroom environment that promotes students' SEL? Teachers are certainly at risk for poor social-emotional wellbeing. Research shows that teaching is one of the most stressful occupations; moreover, stress in the classroom is contagious--simply put, stressed-out teachers tend to have stressed-out students. In the past few years, several interventions have specifically sought to improve teachers' social-emotional competence and stress management in school, and Schonert-Reichly reviews the results, many of which are promising. She also shows how teachers' beliefs--about their own teaching efficacy, or about whether they receive adequate support, for example--influence the fidelity with which they implement SEL programs in the classroom. When fidelity is low, SEL programs are less successful. Finally, she examines the extent to which US teacher education programs prepare teacher candidates to promote their own and their students' social-emotional competence, and she argues that we can and should do much more. As the articles in this issue attest, research in the field of social and emotional learning (SEL) has grown dramatically in recent years. We've learned that we can promote students' social and emotional competence, and that doing so increases not only their SEL skills but also their academic achievement. (1) In other words, for our children and youth to achieve their full potential as productive adult citizens, parents, and volunteers in a pluralistic society, educators must focus explicitly on promoting social and emotional competence. Teachers are the engine that drives SEL programs and practices in schools and classrooms. Yet until recently, their role in promoting SEL and their own social and emotional competence and wellbeing have received scant attention. What do we know about teachers and SEL? Do they buy in to integrating SEL in their classrooms? What about their own social and emotional competence and wellbeing? How does teachers' social-emotional competence influence students' SEL, and how can we promote it? How do teachers' beliefs about SEL influence their implementation of SEL programs? And do prospective teachers receive any information about SEL and their own social and emotional competence in their teacher preparation programs? The importance of these questions should not be underestimated. If we don't accurately understand teachers' own wellbeing and how teachers influence students' SEL, we can never fully know whether and how to promote SEL in the classroom. Such knowledge could not only guide theory, it could also give us practical information about how teachers can steer students toward becoming socially skilled and well-rounded individuals, ready to responsibly navigate their personal and professional paths to adulthood. SEL and Teachers: A Framework Extensive research evidence now confirms that SEL skills can be taught and measured, that they promote positive development and reduce problem behaviors, and that they improve students' academic performance, citizenship, and health-related behaviors. (2) Moreover, these skills predict such important life outcomes as completing high school on time, obtaining a college degree, and securing stable employment. …

Developing a teacher identity in the university context: a systematic review of the literature

Abstract: This literature review summarises the growing body of literature discussing teacher identities of university teachers. The aim was to understand what strengthens or constrains the development of a teacher identity. A qualitative synthesis of 59 studies was carried out. The review showed that several factors contribute to the development of teacher identity. While contact with students and staff development programmes were experienced as strengthening teacher identity, the wider context of higher education was experienced as having a constraining effect. Furthermore, the impact of the direct work environment was experienced as either strengthening or constraining, depending on whether or not teaching is valued in the department. Five psychological processes were found to be involved in the development of a teacher identity: a sense of appreciation, a sense of connectedness, a sense of competence, a sense of commitment, and imagining a future career trajectory. The findings suggest that developing a...

Human resources for Big Data professions: A systematic classification of job roles and required skill sets

Abstract: The rapid expansion of Big Data Analytics is forcing companies to rethink their Human Resource (HR) needs. However, at the same time, it is unclear which types of job roles and skills constitute this area. To this end, this study pursues to drive clarity across the heterogeneous nature of skills required in Big Data professions, by analyzing a large amount of real-world job posts published online. More precisely we: 1) identify four Big Data ‘job families’; 2) recognize nine homogeneous groups of Big Data skills (skill sets) that are being demanded by companies; 3) characterize each job family with the appropriate level of competence required within each Big Data skill set. We propose a novel, semi-automated, fully replicable, analytical methodology based on a combination of machine learning algorithms and expert judgement. Our analysis leverages a significant amount of online job posts, obtained through web scraping, to generate an intelligible classification of job roles and skill sets. The results can support business leaders and HR managers in establishing clear strategies for the acquisition and the development of the right skills needed to leverage Big Data at best. Moreover, the structured classification of job families and skill sets will help establish a common dictionary to be used by HR recruiters and education providers, so that supply and demand can more effectively meet in the job marketplace.

Gender Quotas and the Crisis of the Mediocre Man : Theory and Evidence from Sweden

Abstract: We develop a model where party leaders choose the competence of politicians on the ballot to trade off electoral success against their own survival. The predicted correlation between the competence ...

Meaningful Experiences in Physical Education and Youth Sport: A Review of the Literature

Abstract: The purpose of this research is to review the literature about young people’s meaningful experiences in physical education and youth sport. We reviewed 50 empirical peer-reviewed articles published in English since 1987. Five themes were identified as central influences to young people’s meaningful experiences in physical education and sport: social interaction, fun, challenge, motor competence, and personally relevant learning. These themes provide future direction for the design and implementation of meaningful physical education and youth sport experiences. We also highlight the need for the development of pedagogies that facilitate and promote meaningful engagement in physical education and youth sport settings.

How prepared are UK medical graduates for practice? A rapid review of the literature 2009-2014

Abstract: Objective To understand how prepared UK medical graduates are for practice and the effectiveness of workplace transition interventions. Design A rapid review of the literature (registration #CRD42013005305). Data sources Nine major databases (and key websites) were searched in two timeframes (July–September 2013; updated May–June 2014): CINAHL, Embase, Educational Resources Information Centre, Health Management Information Consortium, MEDLINE, MEDLINE in Process, PsycINFO, Scopus and Web of Knowledge. Eligibility criteria for selecting studies Primary research or studies reporting UK medical graduates' preparedness between 2009 and 2014: manuscripts in English; all study types; participants who are final-year medical students, medical graduates, clinical educators, patients or NHS employers and all outcome measures. Data extraction At time 1, three researchers screened manuscripts (for duplicates, exclusion/inclusion criteria and quality). Remaining 81 manuscripts were coded. At time 2, one researcher repeated the process for 2013–2014 (adding six manuscripts). Data were analysed using a narrative synthesis and mapped against Tomorrow's Doctors (2009) graduate outcomes. Results Most studies comprised junior doctors' self-reports (65/87, 75%), few defined preparedness and a programmatic approach was lacking. Six themes were highlighted: individual skills/knowledge, interactional competence, systemic/technological competence, personal preparedness, demographic factors and transitional interventions. Graduates appear prepared for history taking, physical examinations and some clinical skills, but unprepared for other aspects, including prescribing, clinical reasoning/diagnoses, emergency management, multidisciplinary team-working, handover, error/safety incidents, understanding ethical/legal issues and ward environment familiarity. Shadowing and induction smooth transition into practice, but there is a paucity of evidence around assistantship efficacy. Conclusions Educational interventions are needed to address areas of unpreparedness (eg, multidisciplinary team-working, prescribing and clinical reasoning). Future research in areas we are unsure about should adopt a programmatic and rigorous approach, with clear definitions of preparedness, multiple stakeholder perspectives along with multisite and longitudinal research designs to achieve a joined-up, systematic, approach to understanding future educational requirements for junior doctors.

An Introduction of Research Methodology

Abstract: The competence in problem determination, problem analysis, proposing and mapping several candidate solutions up to selecting the appropriate confirmation approach is important for establishing scientific character since undergraduate program in the University. Scientific character couldn't be obtained in instant, gradual understanding in basic of critical thinking and the way to conclude, even more to believe in something also requires appropriate scientific way of thinking. Concerning this responsibility, it is important to introduce the principle and basic concept of the nature in research activity since the beginning of the undergraduate program.

Competence-based vocational and professional education: bridging the worlds of work and education

Abstract: This book presents a comprehensive overview of extant literature on competence-based vocational and professional education since the introduction of the competence concept in the 1950s. To structure the field, the book distinguishes between three approaches to defining competence, based on: (1) functional behaviourism; (2) integrated occupationalism; and (3) situated professionalism. It also distinguishes between two ways of operationalizing competence: behaviour-oriented generic and task-oriented specific competence. Lastly, it identifies three kinds of competencies, related specific activities, known jobs, and the unknown future. [It is proposed that] competence for the unknown future must receive more attention, as [the] world is rapidly evolving and there are many 'glocal' challenges which call for innovation and a profound transformation of policies and practices.

Nurse Competence Scale: a systematic and psychometric review

Abstract: Aim The aim of this study was to report a systematic and psychometric review. Background The Nurse Competence Scale is currently the most widely used generic instrument to measure Registered Nurses’ competence in different phases of their careers. Based on a decade of research, this review provides a summary of the existing evidence. Design A systematic literature review of research evidence and psychometric properties. Data sources Nine databases from 2004 - October 2015. Review methods We retrieved scientific publications in English and Finnish. Two researchers performed data selection and appraised the methodological quality using the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health status Measurement INstruments checklist. Results A total of 30 studies reported in 43 publications were included. These consisted of over 11,000 competence assessments. Twenty studies were from Europe and 10 from outside Europe. In addition to experienced nurses, the Nurse Competence Scale has been used for the competence assessment of newly graduated nurses and nursing students, mainly in hospital settings. Length of work experience, age, higher education, permanent employment and participation in educational programmes correlated positively with competence. Variables including empowerment, commitment, practice environment, quality of care and critical thinking were also associated with higher competence. The Nurse Competence Scale has demonstrated good content validity and appropriate internal consistency. Conclusion The value of Nurse Competence Scale has been confirmed in determining relationships between background variables and competence. The instrument has been widely used with experienced and newly graduated nurses and their managers. Cross-cultural validation must be continued using rigorous methods.

Who Becomes a Politician

Abstract: Can a democracy attract competent leaders, while attaining broad representation? Economic models suggest that free-riding incentives and lower opportunity costs give the less competent a comparative advantage at entering political life. Moreover, if elites have more human capital, selecting on competence may lead to uneven representation. This article examines patterns of political selection among the universe of municipal politicians and national legislators in Sweden, using extraordinarily rich data on competence traits and social background for the entire population. We document four new facts that together characterize an "inclusive meritocracy." First, politicians are on average significantly smarter and better leaders than the population they represent. Second, this positive selection is present even when conditioning on family (and hence social) background, suggesting that individual competence is key for selection. Third, the representation of social background, whether measured by parental earnings or occupational social class, is remarkably even. Fourth, there is at best a weak trade-off in selection between competence and social representation, mainly due to strong positive selection of politicians of low (parental) socioeconomic status. A broad implication of these facts is that it is possible for democracy to generate competent and socially representative leadership.

Introducing the model of cognitive-communication competence: A model to guide evidence-based communication interventions after brain injury

Abstract: Primary objective: Communication impairments associated with acquired brain injury (ABI) are devastating in their impact on family, community, social, academic, and vocational participation. Despit...

Performance-approach goal effects depend on how they are defined: Meta-analytic evidence from multiple educational outcomes.

Abstract: Achievement goal theory originally defined performance-approach goals as striving to demonstrate competence to outsiders by outperforming peers. The research, however, has operationalized the goals inconsistently, emphasizing the competence demonstration element in some cases and the peer comparison element in others. A meta-analysis by Hulleman et al. (2010) discovered that students’ academic achievement was negatively predicted by performance-approach goals that focus on appearing talented, but positively predicted by performance-approach goals that focus on outperforming peers. The present meta-analysis extends that pattern to numerous other educational outcomes, such as competence perceptions and self-regulation. It does so while also removing a confound (i.e., the sample’s mean age) that varies systematically along with the type of performance-approach goal measure employed in studies. Discussion explores when and why the 2 types of performance-approach goals are most likely to diverge versus converge. It also considers 2 potential directions that goal theory can take to incorporate the 2 performance-approach goals.

ACCP Clinical Pharmacist Competencies.

Abstract: The purpose of the American College of Clinical Pharmacy (ACCP) is to advance human health by extending the frontiers of clinical pharmacy. Consistent with this mission and its core values, ACCP is committed to ensuring that clinical pharmacists possess the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors necessary to deliver comprehensive medication management (CMM) in team-based, direct patient care environments. These components form the basis for the core competencies of a clinical pharmacist and reflect the competencies of other direct patient care providers. This paper is an update to a previous ACCP document and includes the expectation that clinical pharmacists be competent in six essential domains: direct patient care, pharmacotherapy knowledge, systems-based care and population health, communication, professionalism, and continuing professional development. Although these domains align with the competencies of physician providers, they are specifically designed to better reflect the clinical pharmacy expertise required to provide CMM in patient-centered, team-based settings. Clinical pharmacists must be prepared to complete the education and training needed to achieve these competencies and must commit to ongoing efforts to maintain competence through ongoing professional development. Collaboration among stakeholders will be needed to ensure that these competencies guide clinical pharmacists' professional development and evaluation by educational institutions, postgraduate training programs, professional societies, and employers.

Pedagogical Digital Competence - Between Values, Knowledge and Skills

Abstract: The fact that the education provided by universities and university colleges is becoming ever more digitalized has resulted in new challenges for university teachers in providing high-quality teaching and adapting to the needs of changing student populations. Digitalization has increasingly introduced a new dimension in teachers’ pedagogical skills and competences which we have chosen to call Pedagogical Digital Competence (PDC). The purpose of this paper is to discuss and define this new dimension, based on literature and concepts from neighboring areas. As our purpose is to define a concept, the discussion is of a theoretical nature and does not include a comprehensive literature survey. The discussion results in the following definition of PDC: “Pedagogical Digital Competence refers to the ability to consistently apply the attitudes, knowledge and skills required to plan and conduct, and to evaluate and revise on an ongoing basis, ICT-supported teaching, based on theory, current research and proven experience with a view to supporting students’ learning in the best possible way”. Pedagogical Digital Competence thus relates to knowledge, skills and attitudes, and to technology, learning theory, subject, context and learning, and the relationships between these. PDC is thus a competence that is likely to develop the more experienced a teacher becomes.

Competency-Based Postgraduate Medical Education: Past, Present and Future.

Abstract: Since the turn of the twenty-first century, competency-based medical education (CBME) has become a dominant approach to postgraduate medical education in many countries. CBME has a history dating back half a century and is rooted in general educational approaches such as outcome-based education and mastery learning. Despite controversies around the terminology and the CBME approach, important national medical regulatory bodies in Canada, the United States, and other countries have embraced CBME. CBME can be characterized as having two distinct features: a focus on specific domains of competence, and a relative independence of time in training, making it an individualized approach that is particularly applicable in workplace training. It is not the length of training that determines a person’s readiness for unsupervised practice, but the attained competence or competencies. This shift in focus makes CBME different from traditional training. In this contribution, definitions of CBME and related concepts are detailed.

Conceptions of Ability and Achievement Motivation: A Theory and its Implications for Education

Abstract: This chapter presents an informal outline of an integrative theory of achievement motivation. Achievement behavior is distinguished from other forms of behavior by its purpose, which is the development or demonstration of competence rather than incompetence. Each individual's states of achievement motivation can vary in quality or type as well as in strength. Three types or states of motivation can be distinguished: task-involvement, ego-involvement, and extrinsic involvement. Task-involvement, by focusing attention on what is accomplished through effort, should support continued learning and satisfaction with learning. The case for task-involvement is consistent with the Piagetian view of intellectual development. Piaget's concept of equilibration implies that intellectual development occurs when children sense inadequacies in their knowledge. Task-involvement can often be transformed to extrinsic involvement by the introduction of rewards or surveillance. Unrealistic aspirations are increased by ego-involvement.

International consensus statement on the assessment of interprofessional learning outcomes.

Abstract: Regulatory frameworks around the world mandate that health and social care professional education programs graduate practitioners who have the competence and capability to practice effectively in interprofessional collaborative teams. Academic institutions are responding by offering interprofessional education (IPE); however, there is as yet no consensus regarding optimal strategies for the assessment of interprofessional learning (IPL). The Program Committee for the 17th Ottawa Conference in Perth, Australia in March, 2016, invited IPE champions to debate and discuss the current status of the assessment of IPL. A draft statement from this workshop was further discussed at the global All Together Better Health VIII conference in Oxford, UK in September, 2016. The outcomes of these deliberations and a final round of electronic consultation informed the work of a core group of international IPE leaders to develop this document. The consensus statement we present here is the result of the synthesized views of experts and global colleagues. It outlines the challenges and difficulties but endorses a set of desired learning outcome categories and methods of assessment that can be adapted to individual contexts and resources. The points of consensus focus on pre-qualification (pre-licensure) health professional students but may be transferable into post-qualification arenas.

Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of direct observation of clinical skills in medical education

Abstract: Direct observation of clinical skills is a key assessment strategy in competency-based medical education The guidelines presented in this paper synthesize the literature on direct observation of clinical skills The goal is to provide a practical list of Do’s, Don’ts and Don’t Knows about direct observation for supervisors who teach learners in the clinical setting and for educational leaders who are responsible for clinical training programs We built consensus through an iterative approach in which each author, based on their medical education and research knowledge and expertise, independently developed a list of Do’s, Don’ts, and Don’t Knows about direct observation of clinical skills Lists were compiled, discussed and revised We then sought and compiled evidence to support each guideline and determine the strength of each guideline A final set of 33 Do’s, Don’ts and Don’t Knows is presented along with a summary of evidence for each guideline Guidelines focus on two groups: individual supervisors and the educational leaders responsible for clinical training programs Guidelines address recommendations for how to focus direct observation, select an assessment tool, promote high quality assessments, conduct rater training, and create a learning culture conducive to direct observation High frequency, high quality direct observation of clinical skills can be challenging These guidelines offer important evidence-based Do’s and Don’ts that can help improve the frequency and quality of direct observation Improving direct observation requires focus not just on individual supervisors and their learners, but also on the organizations and cultures in which they work and train Additional research to address the Don’t Knows can help educators realize the full potential of direct observation in competency-based education