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Showing papers on "Context (language use) published in 1974"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors presented subjects with pairs of sentences, where the first (the context sentence) provided a context for the second (the target sentence), and the subjects were required to press a button when they felt they understood the target sentences.

999 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper explored the structure of speaker-auditor interaction during speaking turns using detailed transcriptions of language, paralanguage, and body-motion behaviors displayed by both participants in dyadic, face-to-face conversations.
Abstract: The structure of speaker-auditor interaction during speaking turns was explored, using detailed transcriptions of language, paralanguage, and body-motion behaviors displayed by both participants in dyadic, face-toface conversations. On the basis of certain observed regularities in these behaviors, three signals were hypothesized: (a) a speaker within-turn signal, (b) an auditor back-channel signal, and (c) a speaker continuation signal. These signals were composed of various behaviors in language and in body motion. It was further hypothesized that the display of appropriate ordered sequences of these signals by both participants, served to mark 'units of interaction' during speaking turns. (Conversational analysis; speaking turns; back-channel behaviors; interrelations of verbal and nonverbal behavior; American English (Chicago)). It is axiomatic that language is used within a larger communication context. This context typically includes, among other things, both (a) other behaviors (such as those in paralanguage (Trager 1958) and in body motion) displayed conjointly with language behaviors, and (b) one or more other persons with whom the language user is interacting. It is commonplace to consider language (as that term is traditionally used) to be the province of highly structured, rule-governed phenomena. One might inquire, however, as to the possibility that such structured phenomena might be found to extend beyond the bounds of language proper, to include elements of the larger communication context. This paper reports some findings from a program of research designed to discover elements of structure in the broader communication context, not only in paralanguage and body motion, together with language, but also in the respective behaviors of both participants in dyadic, face-to-face conversations.

326 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, it has been argued that modernization promotes potentially disintegrative forces in developing areas, and in particular, often gives rise to powerful ethnic groupings (see Geertz, 1963; Melson and Wolpe, 1970; Huntington, 1968).
Abstract: It has been argued that modernization promotes potentially disintegrative forces in developing areas, and in particular, often gives rise to powerful ethnic groupings (for example, see Geertz, 1963; Melson and Wolpe, 1970; Huntington, 1968). In this article, we elaborate this hypothesis in the context of the developing nations of black Africa. We note that important competition can and do covary in contemporary Africa (Morrison and Stevenson, 1972). And we attempt to explain why this should be so.

298 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The propositional representation is used to interpret effects of verbal context upon recognition memory and the implications of these context effects are considered for two-process models of recall and recognition.
Abstract: This paper modifies the Anderson and Bower (1972) theory of recognition memory for words. A propositional representation is outlined for the contextual information underlying word recognition. Logical arguments are offered for preferring this representation over the undifferentiated associative representation used earlier. The propositional representation is used to interpret effects of verbal context upon recognition memory. The implications of these context effects are considered for two-process models of recall and recognition.

276 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, consistent relationships were found between variables of organization context or task environment (size, dependeness, etc) (i.e., task environment) for manufacturing organizations in three countries.
Abstract: In data in standard form on seventy manufacturing organizations in three countries, consistent relationships are found between variables of organization context or `task environment' (size, depende...

254 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The results support the hypothesis that there exists in memory an isolable subjective lexicon and suggest that context which is effective in disambiguating lexical ambiguities in the language has its effect only at a relatively late stage in the cognitive processing involved in language comprehension.
Abstract: These studies explore the role of context in determining what information about the meanings of words is activated in memory at the time a word is encountered in a sentence. Using a color-naming paradigm, it was shown that both meanings of a word that has two distinct meanings are activated in memory at the time the word is heard in a sentence. This activation occurs even when there is sufficient contextual information to indicate which meaning was intended by the speaker. These results support the hypothesis that there exists in memory an isolable subjective lexicon. They suggest that context which is effective in disambiguating lexical ambiguities in the language has its effect only at a relatively late stage in the cognitive processing involved in language comprehension.

218 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Evidence of the effects of nonverbal context on sentence comprehension was provided by task-related differences in the children's performance and the probability of strategy use was modified through training procedures that paired sentences with certain picture-presentation techniques.
Abstract: STROHNER, HANS, and NELSON, KEITH E. The Young Child's Development of Sentence Comprehension: Influence of Event Probability, Nonverbal Context, Syntactic Form, and Strategies. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1974, 45, 567-576. Sentence comprehension by children between 2 and 5 years of age was examined in the first of 2 studies. 3-year-olds consistently applied extrasyntactic strategies resulting in many errors of comprehension, but 5-year-olds typically relied on syntactic information and correctly interpreted sentences. The strategies children used were based either upon event probabilities (e.g., cats often chase mice) or upon the order "actor-action-object" that occurs in active sentences. In the second study, the probability of strategy use was modified through training procedures that paired sentences with certain picture-presentation techniques. Further evidence of the effects of nonverbal context on sentence comprehension was provided by task-related differences in the children's performance.

178 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: ROSE et al. as discussed by the authors found that contextual cues which may be deemed insignificant by the adult may have a strong influence on the child's cognitive performance, and the results indicated that first grade children made fewer errors on the 1-judgment task itself, and also on a subsequent standard conservation task given 1 week later.
Abstract: ROSE, SUSAN A., and BLANK, MARION. The Potency of Context in Children's Cognition: An Illustration through Conservation. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1974, 45, 499-502. The present research is concerned with the importance of subtle contextual factors in affecting the young child's performance on cognitive problems. To illustrate this phenomenon, the conservation task was altered to include a 1-judgment version in which the child had to comment on the stimuli only after their rearrangement. This condition was devised because it was hypothesized that the request for 2 judgments-i before and 1 after the rearrangement--is taken by the child as a cue that he should alter his first judgment so as to acknowledge the change he has just witnessed. The results indicated that first-grade children made fewer errors not only on the 1-judgment task itself, but also on a subsequent standard conservation task given 1 week later. The results were interpreted as supporting the hypothesis that contextual cues which may be deemed insignificant by the adult may have a strong influence on the child's cognitive performance.

164 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: While cocaine was capable of eliciting positive affective change in depressed patients, affective flooding and dysphoric components were often admixed, indicating that cocaine's effect in this context could not be classified simply as antidepressant.
Abstract: Cocaine, administered orally to patients with endogenous depressive illness, did not consistently affect vital signs or depressive symptomatology, but it did decrease rapid eye movement sleep and total sleep time. When administered intravenously in the context of a therapeutic interview, cocaine caused large, rapid increases in pulse and blood pressure concomitant with profound mobilization of affect and tearfulness. Infusions that caused lesser changes in vital signs were associated with milder degrees of affective change and less dysphoria. Thus, while cocaine was capable of eliciting positive affective change (such as calmness and elation) in depressed patients, affective flooding and dysphoric components were often admixed, indicating that cocaine's effect in this context could not be classified simply as antidepressant.

154 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, an experiment within a questionnaire was designed to isolate factors that would predict the honorability of accounts, including the moral worth of the offender, his penitence, his superior status relative to the demander, and the offensiveness of the violation.
Abstract: An experiment within a questionnaire was designed to isolate factors that would predict the honoring of accounts. Subjects acted as bystanders and read short vignettes describing an interaction containing an offense by one actor, a demand for an account by the other, and an account by the former. The context and offense, the type of account, and the status relationship between demander and accounter were systematically varied. After reading each vignette, subjects rated the offense, the demand, the account, and the accounter on several dimensions. Factors found to affect the prediction of honoring behavior were: the moral worth of the offender, his penitence, his superior status relative to the demander, and the offensiveness of the violation. Honorability was predicted by moral worth, the offender's personal control over the offense, and the appropriateness of the demand. Differences in the prediction of honoring behavior and honorability were discussed.

150 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: ACTH 4–10 served to improve visual memory, decrease anxiety, reinstitute a previously habituated alpha blocking response in the occipital EEG, and generally influence the occIPital EEG toward a pattern consistent with increased attention.
Abstract: The effects of two polypeptides, ACTH 1–24 and ACTH 4–10 on a variety of bioelectric and behavioral measures of attention, memory and anxiety in human subjects were examined within the context of a disjunctive reaction time paradigm. ACTH 1–24 had no effect on any of the measures involved; ACTH 4–10 , however, served to improve visual memory, decrease anxiety, reinstitute a previously habituated alpha blocking response in the occipital EEG, and generally influence the occipital EEG toward a pattern consistent with increased attention. The results were taken to suggest a direct polypeptide influence on CNS attentional mechanisms.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors showed that when one or more speech sounds in a sentence are replaced by a noise meeting certain criteria, the listener mislocalizes the extraneous sound and believes he hears the missing phoneme(s) clearly.
Abstract: Earlier experiments have shown that when one or more speech sounds in a sentence are replaced by a noise meeting certain criteria, the listener mislocalizes the extraneous sound and believes he hears the missing phoneme(s) clearly The present study confirms and extends these earlier reports of phonemic restorations under a variety of novel conditions All stimuli had some of the context necessary for the appropriate phonemic restoration following the missing sound, and all sentences had the missing phoneme deliberately mispronounced before electronic deletion (so that the neighboring phonemes could not provide acoustic cues to aid phonemic restorations) The results are interpreted in terms of mechanisms normally aiding veridical perception of speech and nonspeech sounds

Book
01 Jan 1974
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an activity-oriented approach to encourage creativity in infants, toddlers, and children to age eight, where activities are presented in a developmental context and support instructor participation.
Abstract: This sixth edition text is an activity-oriented approach to encouraging creativity in infants, toddlers, and children to age eight. Activities are presented in a developmental context and support instructor participation.All major topics are covered for early childhood programs and early childhood specialist curriculum programs with focus on art and art related areas, as well as the basic subjects such as creativity in math, language arts, science, social studies, environmental education, and many more.ALSO AVAILABLE INSTUCTOR SUPPLEMENTS CALL CUSTOMER SUPPORT TO ORDERInstructor Manual, ISBN: 0-8273-8364-9

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the relationship between the perceived environment and various student satisfactions and moods in a high school classroom and found that the strongest relationships with student satisfaction and positive student mood involved those classrooms emphasizing personal relationship dimensions and clarity of rules.
Abstract: The relationship o f perceived environment o f the high school classroom to student satisfactions and moods was assessed in two matched samples o f 18 classrooms each. A number o f significant and replicated relationships were found between the perceived environment and various satisfactions and moods. The strongest relationships with student satisfactions and positive student mood involved those classrooms emphasizing personal relationship dimensions and clarity o f rules. The study was conceptualized and discussed in the context o f two central aspects o f community psychology." the assessment of environments and the implications o f such assessments for planning and change.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used the Titchner's circles to study the effect of size contrast on the perception of visual magnitudes and found that the magnitude of this effect varies as a function of apparent similarity between test and inducing elements.
Abstract: Size contrast occurs in numerous configurations where a test figure appears apparently larger when surrounded by small elements and apparently smaller when surrounded by large elements. Using the Ebbinghaus illusion, the magnitude of this effect is shown to vary as a function of apparent similarity between test and inducing element. It has long been known that estimates of perceptual magnitude are never made in isolation, but rather are made relative to all of the other stimuli which form its context. Thus, a S·ft 10-in. sports announcer looks very short when interviewing a team of basketball players, but very tall when interviewing a group of race horse jockeys. This effect was first introduced by Helmholtz (1866), who noted that clearly perceived sensory differences tend to be exaggerated, a general phenomenon which he called contrast. Thus, the apparent size of the sports announcer is affected by size contrast, which exaggerates his relative tallness or shortness against the surrounding context of athletes. Since Helmholtz introduced the concept, it has been elaborated by Wundt (1894) into the law ofrelativity, and given a quantiative formulation by Helson (1964), in terms of adaptation level theory. The notion that we judge the sensory magnitude of stimuli against the magnitude of the surrounding context of stimuli has been used to explain some varieties of visual illusions. Thus, Fig. 1A shows the Ebbinghaus illusion (frequently called Titchner's circles), in which the central circle surrounded by large inducing elements appears smaller than the central circle surrounded by the small elements. Massaro and Anderson (1971) and Girgus, Coren, and Agdern (1972) have shown that the apparent size of the central test elements varies systematically with the size of the context elements. There is good evidence that such size contrast distortions are due to active comparative judgmental processes. Restle

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Jan 1974
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify a central focus and a progression of tasks and assessments to build deep understandings for students with special needs and adapt or modify assessments for special needs.
Abstract: Academic Language Identify students’ strengths & challenges. List learning opportunities offered by the text type. Articulate importance of challenging terms. Assessment Be prepared to assess productive and receptive modalities. Allow students to show depth of understanding or skill. Adapt or modify assessments for students with special needs. Reflection Rubric Think about what theories and research influence your teaching. Central Focus Create a progression of tasks and assessments to build deep understandings. Content Standards Use the standards to help you identify a central focus. Link the standards, objectives, instruction, activities, and assessments. Planning Rubrics Establish a balanced focus. Make content accessible. Design assessments.

Book
01 Jan 1974
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a joint study by the World Bank's Development Research Center and the Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, on policies to improve income distribution in developing countries in the context of economic growth.
Abstract: Policies to improve income distribution in developing countries in the context of economic growth - a joint study by the World Bank's Development Research Center and the Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper found that the variance in definition of an expression embedded in a context generally increased with the discrepancy between its no-context definition and the context event's estimated frequency (p <.05).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the use of behavior conditioning within the context of structural family therapy has proved effective in the treatment of anorexia nervosa, during the inpatient phase, a behavior paradigm made acce...
Abstract: The use of behavior conditioning within the context of structural family therapy has proved effective in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. During the inpatient phase, a behavior paradigm made acce...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article found that black migrants from the South may initially experience fairly high rates of poverty and welfare dependence, but after a few years the Southern migrants are more successful in escaping from poverty and dependence than blacks native to large cities in the North.
Abstract: Data from the 1970 census show that black migrants to six of the nation's largest cities were less likely to be poor or on welfare in 1970 than blacks born and raised in these cities. The cross-sectional pattern suggests that black migrants from the South may initially experience fairly high rates of poverty and welfare dependence, but after a few years the Southern migrants are more successful in escaping from poverty and welfare dependence than blacks native to large cities in the North. Among whites in the six cities there is no consistent relationship between migration status and being poor and on welfare, except for slightly higher than average rates of poverty and receipt of welfare among the Southern born. These findings are placed in the context of previous research on differences between first-generation black Northerners and second-(and later) generation black Northerners. Some explanatory hypotheses are offered.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The response style "reflection-impulsivity" was unrelated to creativity, although hypothesized antecedents of this dimension are identical to those which have been proposed for various creativity subgroups, and a measure of artistic preference failed to relate significantly to creativity scores.
Abstract: Measures of divergent thinking were administered to 34 7and 8-year-old boys in a permissive testing context and without time limits. Individual differences were reliable across tests and independent of IQ, in contrast to typical findings in studies employing an ability-testing atmosphere. In 87 kindergarten children, similar results were obtained for tests with semantic content but not for one whose content was figural. However, there was intertask consistency in test involvement despite this partial inconsistency in response totals, suggesting that a unitary creativity dimension is present in kindergarten children but is not measured by the figural test at this age. The response style "reflection-impulsivity" was unrelated to creativity, although hypothesized antecedents of this dimension are identical to those which have been proposed for various creativity subgroups. A measure of artistic preference also failed to relate significantly to creativity scores.

Journal Article
TL;DR: A review of the literature on maternal employment effects on children can be found in this paper, where a number of methodological issues raised by previous reviewers are re-examined within the context of recent research efforts.
Abstract: The 1950's and early 1960's witnessed a growing research con cern with the effects of maternal employment on children, culminating in several comprehensive literature reviews (e.g., Nye & Hoffman, 1963; Siegel & Haas, 1963,· Stolz, 1960). During the last ten years, the body of literature dealing with maternal employment effects has continued to expand. An updated review of this recent research ap pears especially timely considering the ever-increasing percentage of mothers entering the working force. (In 1960, 18.6% of mothers with preschool children and 39.0% of mothers with school age chil dren worked; in 1971, these figures were 29.6% and 49.4%, respec tively,· United States Bureau of the Census, 1972b). This paper reviews both published and unpublished research of the last decade (1963-1972), and integrates these data with results of earlier studies.1 In addition, a number of methodological issues raised by previous reviewers are re-examined within the context of recent research efforts. The findings are grouped topically into the following categories: adjustment, school achievement and intelli gence, activities, and perceptions and attitudes. Within the adjust ment category, results are arranged according to the age of the child.

Book
01 Jan 1974
TL;DR: The authors reviewed single experiments on the effects of reinforcement on behaviour and emphasized that behaviour can be maintained and controlled in many different ways by environmental events. But they did not consider the effect of reinforcement in more complex situations such as punishment, anxiety, aversive stimuli and drugs.
Abstract: The approach to psychology advocated by the radical behaviourists was often misunderstood and frequently gave rise to controversy. Originally published in 1974, this book introduced current research in operant conditioning and explains the attempt to understand behaviour inherent in such experiments at the time. After considering the philosophical context in which behaviouristic psychology developed, the author outlines the basic characteristics of operant research by reviewing single experiments on the effects of reinforcement on behaviour. Chapters on schedules of intermittent reinforcement extend this approach to more complex situations and emphasize that behaviour can be maintained and controlled in many different ways by environmental events. The author then discusses recent work on conditional reinforcement and on the discriminative control of behaviour and shows how operant research has changed our understanding of these important concepts in psychology. Subsequent chapters review research within the operant paradigm on the effects on behaviour of punishment, anxiety, aversive stimuli and drugs, again by emphasising the special contribution to these topics made by operant conditioning techniques and methodology. The final chapters consider the general implications of operant research for educational practice and for clinical psychology, and place this approach within the context of psychology as a whole. Dr Blackman argues that it should be recognized as one important attempt to further the scientific analysis of behaviour. This book, filled a long recognized need for an undergraduate text in this area at the time, and helped students form their own evaluation. Now it should be read in its historical context.

Journal ArticleDOI
Tom Maibaum1
TL;DR: It is shown that the derivation trees of a context free set are always characterized by some recognizable set over a related many-sorted alphabet.

Book
01 Jan 1974
TL;DR: In this paper, the conceptual basis of regional planning is discussed and the analysis of regions: inter-regional analysis the regional framework regional change - short run regional growth - long run intra-region analysis the location of industry the spatial structure of regions growth pole theory.
Abstract: Part 1 The conceptual basis of regional planning: the context of regional planning the region in regional planning. Part 2 The analysis of regions: Inter-regional analysis the regional framework regional change - short run regional growth - long run intra-regional analysis the location of industry the spatial structure of regions growth pole theory. Part 3 The practice of regional planning inter-regional planning in the United Kingdom intra-regional planning in the United Kingdom UK regional planning - institutional environment and reform regional planning in a European context conclusions - retrospect and prospect.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The concept of skewness of returns and its role in the context of portfolio analysis has gained increasing attention in recent literature as mentioned in this paper, which has been measured and interpreted as a logical extension of the traditional two-dimensional return-versus-standard deviation analysis of security evaluation.
Abstract: Certainly, the concept of skewness of returns and its role in the context of portfolio analysis has gained increasing attention in recent literature. Witness the studies by Alderfer and Bierman [1], Arditti [2, 3], Jean [4], and Simonson [5]. Each of these studies has treated skewness as the third moment of a series expansion—accordingly, skewness has been measured and interpreted as a logical extension of the traditional two-dimensional return-versus-standard deviation analysis of security evaluation.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a theory about the processes operating to stratify society by age is proposed, which reveals both a socially structured potential for political conflict between young and old and age-related mechanisms for reducing such conflict.
Abstract: The militancy of youth in the late 1960's has occasioned much comment on the reasons for age conflict in political life. This essay suggests that full understanding of such conflict requires a theory about the processes operating to stratify society by age. Application to political life of the emerging theory of age stratification reveals both a socially structured potential for political conflict between young and old and age-related mechanisms for reducing such conflict. These two possibilities, and the political context which may favor one or the other are explored.

Journal Article
TL;DR: The arrangements comprising the health care delivery system are analyzed in terms of social organization, and selected characteristics of the system are discussed that are pertinent to the study of diffusion and adoption of various types of innovations.
Abstract: The arrangements comprising the health care delivery system are analyzed in terms of social organization, and selected characteristics of the system are discussed that are pertinent to the study of diffusion and adoption of various types of innovations. Research currently under way or completed is then reviewed in terms of its contribution to overall understanding of the phenomenon of innovation, on both the individual practitioner and the organizational levels. The analysis is then used to delineate problem areas needing further study. The article provides a useful context in which to consider substantive findings of future empirical research.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Frequency of use of a product and market context offer new perspectives for selecting the superior segmentation correlate.
Abstract: Frequency of use of a product and market context offer new perspectives for selecting the superior segmentation correlate.

Journal ArticleDOI
17 May 1974-Nature
TL;DR: It is confirmed by May2 in a study of large systems in the ecological context that probability of stability generally decreases with the increase of the degree of connectedness among the parts of the system.
Abstract: IN 1970, Garner and Ashby1 asked an important question: “If a large system is assembled (connected) at random, or has grown haphazardly, should we expect it to be stable or unstable?” They snowed on a linear model that probability of stability generally decreases with the increase of the degree of connectedness among the parts of the system. This fact was confirmed by May2 in a study of large systems in the ecological context.