Showing papers on "Context (language use) published in 1976"
Journal Article•
TL;DR: One gets faux amis between English as spoken in different parts of the world as mentioned in this paper and English as used in mathematics and in everyday life there are such words as field, group, ring, ideal.
Abstract: One gets faux amis between English as spoken in different parts of the world. An Englishman asking in America for a biscuit would be given what we call a scone. To get what we call a biscuit, he would have to ask for a cookie. And between English as used in mathematics and in everyday life there are such words as field, group, ring, ideal. A person who is unaware that the word he is using is a faux ami can make inconvenient mistakes. We expect history to be true, but not a story. We take books without paying from a library, but not from a bookshop; and so on. But in the foregoing examples there are cues which might put one on guard: difference of language, or of country, or of context. If, however, the same word is used in the same language, country and context, with two meanings whose difference is non-trivial but as basic as the difference between the meaning of (say) ‘histoire’ and ‘story’, which is a difference between fact and fiction, one may expect serious confusion. Two such words can be identified in the context of mathematics; and it is the alternative meanings attached to these words,
775 citations
TL;DR: This work tested certain versions of the selective-access hypothesis about the recognition of ambiguous words by having students decide whether selected strings of letters were English words, and found that the reaction time for the third word was not reliably different from a control sequence with unrelated words.
Abstract: Some alternative hypotheses about the recognition of ambiguous words are considered. According to the selective-access hypothesis, prior semantic context biases people to access one meaning of an ambiguous word rather than another in lexical memory during recognition. In contrast, the nonselectiveaccess hypothesis states that all meanings of the word are accessed regardless of the context. We tested certain versions of these hypotheses by having students decide whether selected strings of letters were English words. The stimuli included test sequnces of three words in which the second word had two distinct possible meanings, whereas the first and third words were related to these meanings in various ways. When the first and third words were related to the same meaning of the ambiguous second word (e.g., SAVE-BANK-MONEY), the reaction time to recognize the third word decreased. But when the first and third words were related to different meanings of the second word (e.g., RIVER-BANK-MONEY), the reaction time for the third word was not reliably different from a control sequence with unrelated words. These and other data favor the selective-access hypothesis. Selective access to lexical memory is discussed in relation to models of word recognition.
255 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the relevant alternative view is conceived as two parts: 1) The relevant alternative position supports deductive closure, and 2) It does not need evidence that the negations are relevant alternatives in the context in question.
Abstract: My view is that the relevant alternative position should be conceived of as in two parts:
(1)
With respect to many propositions, to establish a knowledge claim is to be able to support it as opposed to a limited number of alternatives — i.e., only those which are relevant in the context.
(2)
With respect to many propositions — in particular those which are such that their negations are not relevant alternatives in the context in question — we simply know them to be true and do not need evidence, in the normal sense, that they, rather than their negations, are true. So conceived, the relevant alternative view neither supports the abandonment of deductive closure, nor is such abandonment in any way needed to provide the relevant alternative view with an answer to the skeptic, insofar as he can be answered.
242 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors studied the relaxation to a Maxwell distribution in the context of classical kinetic theory and derived an exact solution of the nonlinear Boltzmann equation and an asymptotic solution.
Abstract: Using two models, we study the relaxation to a Maxwell distribution in the context of classical kinetic theory For the first model, an exact solution of the nonlinear Boltzmann equation is derived For the second model, an asymptotic solution exhibits the remarkable feature of a transient tail population sometimes much larger than the equilibrium Maxwell distribution This phenomenon may be of importance for calculating rates of fast chemical reactions and for controlled thermonuclear fusion
198 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that context was a powerful determiner of which meaning was remembered from polysemous paragraphs only when incoming information was processed at a deeper, more semantic level, and that students remembered more information and more context-consonant information when given instructions which required processing the paragraphs at a semantic level.
191 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a procedure was developed to avoid the dilemma by legitimizing rather than requesting the delivery of a minimal favor, and two experiments were conducted in a door-to-door charity drive context to examine the effectiveness of a technique for solving the dilemma of small requests.
Abstract: Two experiments were conducted in a door-to-door charity drive context to examine the effectiveness of a technique for solving the dilemma of small requests. The dilemma of small requests is that while they serve to make a target person's compliance highly likely, they also tend to produce low-level payoffs for the requester. A procedure was developed to avoid the dilemma by legitimizing rather than requesting the delivery of a minimal favor. Thus, it was predicted that a solicitor who implied that a very small favor was acceptable but not necessarily desirable would make it difficult for a target to decline to help and, at the same time, make it unlikely that the target would actually offer a low grade of assistance. In confirmation of this prediction, a door-todoor solicitor for charity was able to increase significantly the frequency of donations while leaving unaffected the size of the donations by adding the sentence, "Even a penny will help," to a standard request for funds. Experiment 2 replicated this result and provided evidence for the legitimization-ofsmall-favors explanation of the effect. A growing number of studies have focused on the question of which factors affect a person's willingness to comply with a request. Researchers have investigated the influence of such variables as mood states, both positive (e.g., Isen & Levin, 1972) and negative
190 citations
TL;DR: An attempt is made to define and relate selected properties of macro and micro organization design and performance, identify and compare different design patterns within a complex organization, and explore how these differentiated patterns are linked as an intra-organizational network.
Abstract: A theoretical framework for analyzing the context, structure, process, and performance of complex organizations is developed. An attempt is made to (1) define and relate selected properties of macro and micro organization design and performance, (2) identify and compare different design patterns within a complex organization, and (3) explore how these differentiated patterns are linked as an intra-organizational network.
Book•
01 Oct 1976
TL;DR: ELI (English Language Interpreter) is a natural language parsing program currently used by several story understanding systems that produces meaning representations rather than syntactic structures and uses context-based exceptions to control its parsing routines.
Abstract: : ELI (English Language Interpreter) is a natural language parsing program currently used by several story understanding systems. ELI differs from most other parsers in that it: produces meaning representations (using Schank's Conceptual Dependency system) rather than syntactic structures; uses syntactic information only when the meaning can not be obtained directly; talks to other programs that make high level inferences that tie individual events into coherent episodes; uses context-based exceptions (conceptual and syntactic) to control its parsing routines. Examples of texts that ELI has understood, and details of how it works are given.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on the process whereby a scientist's research findings are transformed into accredited factual knowledge, which is an issue which has been relatively infrequent in the sociological study of science.
Abstract: conducting detailed and 'micro'-scale studies of scientific research. This has often been accompanied by a belief that the sociology of science ought to be cast within an 'interpretive' rather than within a 'normative' paradigm.1 As a result, some sociologists have begun to inquire about the everyday practices of research scientists, and others have looked at the ways in which knowledge of research techniques and innovations are transmitted from one scientist to another.2 At the same time, there has been an increasing emphasis on the importance of considering the intellectual context of research as an integral part of the sociological study of science. At present, however, the majority of this work is concerned with what might loosely be called the 'context of discovery'3 - that is, with the social processes associated with the creation of research findings within the scientific community. Some valuable studies have resulted from the adoption of this approach, and more can be expected. This paper, however, will be concerned with a different aspect of the creation of scientific knowledge. It will explore in a preliminary way the process whereby a scientist's research findings are transformed into accredited factual knowledge.4 Thus I shall here be concerned primarily with the 'context of justification'. Although this has long been of great interest to philosophers of science, who have sought to define rational or ideal procedures to divide true knowledge from false claims, it is an issue which has been relatively infrequently
TL;DR: A role for relational information was examined for the paradigm in which recognition-memory performance on items tested in the same context in which they were studied is compared with performance onItems tested in different contexts.
Abstract: A role for relational information was examined for the paradigm in which recognition-memory performance on items tested in the same context in which they were studied is compared with performance on items tested in different contexts. Over a series of five experiments, randomly formed pairs were used to manipulate the context of high-frequency English words. Comparisons were made between instructional manipulations designed to influence the use of relational information, and between yes/no, confidence rating (both between- and within-subject), and forced-choice tasks. There was a context effect not due to the use of inappropriate response strategies. However, high-criterion subjects resembled those subjects who were specifically instructed to use relational information, while low-criterion subjects showed little or no context effect. A model specifying the relationship between item and relational information and how relational information influences decisions in recognition-memory paradigms was proposed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a context for music that is not bound to a conceptual scheme: the process of communication between composer and listener normally requires an intermediary: an individual per-former or a group of co-performers.
Abstract: Music is a meaningful context which is not bound to a conceptual scheme. Yet this meaningful context can be communicated: The process of communication between composer and listener normally requires an intermediary: an individual per-former or a group of co-performers. Among all these participants there prevail social relations of a highly complicated structure.
TL;DR: This paper found that children under five years fail to take account of their audience's knowledge of a referent and their referring expressions are predominantly definite, while children between five and nine years consistently introduce referents with indefinite expressions.
Abstract: Three experiments are reported, each examining young children's ability to use the indefinite article to introduce a new referent to a context of discourse, and the definite article to refer to an already-introduced referent. The context of the speaker's referring expressions is varied in terms of the nature of, and the listener's knowledge of, the referents. The results indicate that children under five years fail to take account of their audience's knowledge of a referent — their referring expressions are predominantly definite. Between five and nine years, children inconsistently introduce referents with indefinite expressions. It is argued that mastery of the introductory function of a requires decentration on the part of the speaker.
01 Mar 1976
TL;DR: This paper demonstrates how to model the following common programming constructs in terms of an applicative order language similar to LISP: Simple Recursion, Iteration, Compound Statements and Expressions, GO TO and Assignment, Continuation-Passing, Escape Expressions and Call by Name.
Abstract: We demonstrate how to model the following common programming constructs in terms of an applicative order language similar to LISP: Simple Recursion, Iteration, Compound Statements and Expressions, GO TO and Assignment, Continuation-Passing, Escape Expressions, Fluid Variables, Call by Name, Call by Need, and Call by Reference. The models require only (possibly self-referent) lambda application, conditionals, and (rarely) assignment. No complex data structures such as stacks are used. The models are transparent, involving only local syntactic transformations. This paper is partly tutorial in intent, gathering all the models together for purposes of context.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors tried to bring together the existing points of view, hypotheses, and empirical evidence obtained with respect to the role played by social interaction factors in the behavior of road users.
Abstract: Despite all apparent anonymity of people who use the streets and roads as vehicle operators or as pedestrians, participation in traffic does not take place in a social vacuum. The individual performs his driving task in the context of the collective of road users, and this context is characterized by the central tendencies of social habits and values, expectations and communications, as well as their patterns of deviation. This paper attempts to bring together the existing points of view, hypotheses, and empirical evidence obtained with respect to the role played by social interaction factors in the behavior of road users.
TL;DR: The authors investigated the effect of disambiguating prior contexts on the processing of lexical ambiguities in sentences, and found that the effect was significantly longer following ambiguous words than following their controls.
TL;DR: Theory and research on the psychological construct of "fear of success" is reviewed in the context of Horner's original (1968) formulation of the motive as mentioned in this paper, and the validity and the reliability of the original measure are questioned in the light of the weakness of empirical support.
Abstract: Theory and research on the psychological construct of “fear of success” is reviewed in the context of Horner's original (1968) formulation of the motive. Both the validity and the reliability of the original measure are questioned in the light of the weakness of empirical support. The findings of subsequent research are organized in terms of what they contribute to a situational rather than a motivational interpretation of the data. Implications of these different views of the achievement behavior of females for changes in sex-role socialization are discussed.
TL;DR: This article found that children as young as 4 years of age could conceive of others' conceptual points of view in a non-egocentric fashion, and the results were discussed in terms of the nature and context of perspective-taking tasks, and of the development of group interaction.
Abstract: MARVIN, ROBERT S.; GREENBERG, MARK T.; and MOSSLER, DANIEL G. The Early Development of Conceptual Perspective Taking: Distinguishing among Multiple Perspectives. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1976, 47, 511-514. 80 children between 2.5 and 6.5 years of age were administered a task in which they were required to distinguish among multiple conceptual points of view. The task was based on the notion of a secret, involved 3 participants, and was administered in the children's homes. Results indicated that children as young as 4 years of age could conceive of others' conceptual points of view in a non-egocentric fashion. The results were discussed in terms of the nature and context of perspective-taking tasks, and of the development of group interaction.
TL;DR: In this article, a solution to get the problem off, have you found it? Really? What kind of solution do you resolve the problem? From what sources? Well, there are so many questions that we utter every day.
Abstract: A solution to get the problem off, have you found it? Really? What kind of solution do you resolve the problem? From what sources? Well, there are so many questions that we utter every day. No matter how you will get the solution, it will mean better. You can take the reference from some books. And the the human context environmental determinants of behavior is one book that we really recommend you to read, to get more solutions in solving this problem.
TL;DR: This paper describes the family-school interview, and intervention with a child, family, and school, taking into account the dynamics of each system in that ecological context and the structural interrelationships of these systems relative to the problem presented by the child.
Abstract: This paper describes the family-school interview, and intervention with a child, family, and school, taking into account the dynamics of each system in that ecological context and the structural interrelationships of these systems relative to the problem presented by the child.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the role of management in negotiating the organization's relationships with the environment and present strategies for managing interorganizational interdependence, such as merger, joint ventures, co-optation, movement of personnel among organizations, regulation and political activity.
Abstract: Management's role in negotiating the organization's relationships with the environment has been neglected in theory and research. Strategies for managing interorganizational interdependence include: merger, joint ventures, cooptation, movement of personnel among organizations, regulation, and political activity. Institutional management activities can be explained using variables measuring dimensions of the organization's context.
TL;DR: Findings from eight cross-sectional investigations found need for achievement was posited to be an important intervening variable in understanding the context in which adult age differences in cautiousness emerge.
Abstract: After a brief description of the hypotheses proposed to account for adult-age differences in cautiousness, this article reviews findings from eight cross-sectional investigations. Adult-age differences were observed on the choice dilemmas instrument (the predominant methodology) only in the case when adults were permitted to refrain from responding to the life situations depicted in the items. In recent research, using behavioral measures of risk-taking, adult-age differences have been found. Need for achievement was posited to be an important intervening variable in understanding the context in which adult age differences in cautiousness emerge. Several areas of pertinent research were identified.
TL;DR: A review of Joreskog's model for the analysis of covariance structures by first introducing the simpler case of confirmatory factor analysis is presented in this article. The mathematical results necessary for estimation and hypothesis testing are presented in a way which should be more accessible to sociologists than the original sources.
Abstract: This paper reviews Joreskog's model for the analysis of covariance structures by first introducing the simpler case of confirmatory factor analysis. The mathematical results necessary for estimation and hypothesis testing are presented in a way which should be more accessible to sociologists than the original sources. The usefulness of Joreskog's techniques is indicated by reformulating a series of models which have been estimated by sociologists using techniques without statistical justification in the format of covariance structures. Identification is considered in this context. The argument is made that these methods can greatly extend our ability to construct structural equation models containing measurement error.
TL;DR: It is proposed that the development of ventricular fibrillation in the context of ischaemic heart-disease and myocardial infarction can be related to accumulation of cyclic adenosine 3',5' monophosphate (A.M.P.), which provides a framework for the better understanding of the action of antiarrhythmic drugs.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of experimental context and experiential background on infants' behavior toward their mothers and a stranger were studied, using a structured observational technique, as a function of the experimental context (home and laboratory) and experience history (home rearing and day care).
Abstract: BROOKHART, JOYCE, and HOCK, ELLEN. The Effects of Experimental Context and Experiential Background on Infants' Behavior toward Their Mothers and a Stranger. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1976, 47, 333-340. Social behaviors of 10and 12-month-old infants were studied, using a structured observational technique, as a function of experimental context (home and laboratory) and experiential history (home rearing and day care). In the home, all infants exhibited more proximity-avoiding behavior of both the mother and a stranger; in the laboratory, infants exhibited more contact maintaining and proximity seeking of the stranger. The experimental context influenced infant social behaviors, particularly behaviors interpreted as reflecting an infant's growing sense of independence. No differences attributable to rearing condition as a main effect were found; however, a significant rearing group x sex of infant interaction led to consideration of differential sensitivity of the sexes to rearing conditions.