Showing papers on "Context (language use) published in 1988"

A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality

Abstract: Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a research-based model that accounts for major patterns of behavior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for understanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally developed, and (c) explore the broader implications of the model for motivational and personality processes.

Cognition in practice : mind, mathematics, and culture in everyday life

Abstract: Most previous research on human cognition has focused on problem-solving, and has confined its investigations to the laboratory. As a result, it has been difficult to account for complex mental processes and their place in culture and history. In this startling - indeed, disco in forting - study, Jean Lave moves the analysis of one particular form of cognitive activity, - arithmetic problem-solving - out of the laboratory into the domain of everyday life. In so doing, she shows how mathematics in the 'real world', like all thinking, is shaped by the dynamic encounter between the culturally endowed mind and its total context, a subtle interaction that shapes 1) Both tile human subject and the world within which it acts. The study is focused on mundane daily, activities, such as grocery shopping for 'best buys' in the supermarket, dieting, and so on. Innovative in its method, fascinating in its findings, the research is above all significant in its theoretical contributions. Have offers a cogent critique of conventional cognitive theory, turning for an alternative to recent social theory, and weaving a compelling synthesis from elements of culture theory, theories of practice, and Marxist discourse. The result is a new way of understanding human thought processes, a vision of cognition as the dialectic between persons-acting, and the settings in which their activity is constituted. The book will appeal to anthropologists, for its novel theory of the relation of cognition to culture and context; to cognitive scientists and educational theorists; and to the 'plain folks' who form its subject, and who will recognize themselves in it, a rare accomplishment in the modern social sciences.

The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension : a construction-integration model

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses data concerning the time course of word identification in a discourse context. A simulation of arithmetic word-problem understanding provides a plausible account for some well-known phenomena. The current theories use representations with several mutually constraining layers. There is typically a linguistic level of representation, conceptual levels to represent both the local and global meaning and structure of a text, and a level at which the text itself has lost its individuality and its information content. Knowledge provides part of the context within which a discourse interpreted. The integration phase is the price the model pays for the necessary flexibility in the construction process.

Individualism and Collectivism: Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Self-Ingroup Relationships

Abstract: The individualism and collectivism constructs are theoretically analyzed and linked to certain hypothesized consequences (social behaviors, health indices). Study 1 explores the meaning of these constructs within culture (in the United States), identifying the individual-differences variable, idiocentrism versus allocentrism, that corresponds to the constructs. Factor analyses of responses to items related to the constructs suggest that UrS. individualism is reflected in (a) Self-Reliance With Competition, (b) Low Concern for Ingroups, and (c) Distance from Ingroups. A higher order factor analysis suggests that Subordination oflngroup Goals to Personal Goals may be the most important aspect of U.S. individualism. Study 2 probes the limits of the constructs with data from two collectivist samples (Japan and Puerto Rico) and one individualist sample (Illinois) of students. It is shown that responses depend on who the other is (i.e., which ingroup), the context, and the kind of social behavior (e.g., feel similar to other, attentive to the views of others). Study 3 replicates previous work in Puerto Rico indicating that allocentric persons perceive that they receive more and a better quality of social support than do idiocentric persons, while the latter report being more lonely than the former. Several themes, such as self-reliance, achievement, and competition, have different meanings in the two kinds of societies, and detailed examinations of the factor patterns show how such themes vary across cultures.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of drug dependence.

Abstract: The molecular and cellular actions of three classes of abused drugs--opiates, psychostimulants, and ethanol--are reviewed in the context of behavioral studies of drug dependence. The immediate effects of drugs are compared to those observed after long-term exposure. A neurobiological basis for drug dependence is proposed from the linkage between the cellular and behavioral effects of these drugs.

The intrinsic electrophysiological properties of mammalian neurons: insights into central nervous system function.

Abstract: This article reviews the electroresponsive properties of single neurons in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). In some of these cells the ionic conductances responsible for their excitability also endow them with autorhythmic electrical oscillatory properties. Chemical or electrical synaptic contacts between these neurons often result in network oscillations. In such networks, autorhythmic neurons may act as true oscillators (as pacemakers) or as resonators (responding preferentially to certain firing frequencies). Oscillations and resonance in the CNS are proposed to have diverse functional roles, such as (i) determining global functional states (for example, sleep-wakefulness or attention), (ii) timing in motor coordination, and (iii) specifying connectivity during development. Also, oscillation, especially in the thalamo-cortical circuits, may be related to certain neurological and psychiatric disorders. This review proposes that the autorhythmic electrical properties of central neurons and their connectivity form the basis for an intrinsic functional coordinate system that provides internal context to sensory input.

Adaptation to Sun and Shade: a Whole-Plant Perspective

Abstract: Whole-plant energy capture depends not only on the photosynthetic response of individual leaves, but also on their integration into an effective canopy, and on the costs of producing and maintaining their photosynthetic capacity. This paper explores adaptation to irradiance level in this context, focusing on traits whose significance would be elusive if considered in terms of their impact at the leaf level alone. I review traditional approaches used to demonstrate or suggest adaptation to irradiance level, and outline three energetic tradeoffs likely to shape such adaptation, involving the economics of gas exchange, support, and biotic interactions. Recent models using these tradeoffs to account for trends in leaf nitrogen content, stornatal conductance, phyllotaxis, and defensive allocations in sun v. shade are evaluated. A re-evaluation of the classic study of acclimation of the photosynthetic light response in Atriplex, crucial to interpreting adaptation to irradiance in many traits, shows that it does not completely support the central dogma of adaptation to sun v. shade unless the results are analysed in terms of whole-plant energy capture. Calculations for Liriodendron show that the traditional light compensation point has little meaning for net carbon gain, and that the effective compensation point is profoundly influenced by the costs of night leaf respiration, leaf construction, and the construction of associated support and root tissue. The costs of support tissue are especially important, raising the effective compensation point by 140 pmol m- s - ' in trees 1 m tall, and by nearly 1350 pmol m - s - ' in trees 30 m tall. Effective compensation points give maximum tree heights as a function of irradiance, and shade tolerance as a function of tree height; calculations of maximum permissible height in Liriodendron correspond roughly with the height of the tallest known individual. Finally, new models for the evolution of canopy width/height ratio in response to irradiance and coverage within a tree stratum, and for the evolution of mottled leaves as a defensive measure in understory herbs, are outlined.

The impact of interpersonal environment on burnout and organizational commitment

Abstract: Summary Organizational commitment and burnout were related to interpersonal relationships of nurses in a small general hospital. Regular communication contacts among personnel were differentiated as supervisor or coworker contact, and these categories were further differentiated into pleasant and unpleasant contacts. The results were consistent with a view of burnout in which emotional exhaustion leads to greater depersonalization which subsequently leads to diminished personal accomplishment. Interpersonal contact with personnel in the organization was related to the development of burnout at each stage. Patterns of pleasant and unpleasant contacts with supervisors and coworkers were related to the three aspects of burnout in a distinct manner. High burnout was related to diminished organizational commitment, which was also related to aspects of the interpersonal environment of the organization. The results are discussed in the context of a comprehensive approach to psychological adjustment to a worksetting.

Adult Schizophrenia Following Prenatal Exposure to an Influenza Epidemic

Abstract: In the context of a Finnish birth cohort, we tested the hypothesis that viral infection during the latter two thirds of fetal development would increase the risk of adult schizophrenic outcome. Psychiatric hospital diagnoses were recorded for all individuals in greater Helsinki who were fetuses during the 1957 type A2 influenza epidemic. Those exposed to the viral epidemic during their second trimester of fetal development were at elevated risk of being admitted to a psychiatric hospital with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. This was true for both males and females and independently in several psychiatric hospitals. The second-trimester effect was seen in the elevated proportion of schizophrenics among those admitted to a psychiatric hospital and also in higher rates of schizophrenia per 1000 live births in the city of Helsinki. The study has several limitations: (1) We have no direct evidence that the subjects actually suffered a viral infection. (2) The psychiatric data were obtained only for subjects up to the age of 26 years, 56 days. (3) The findings are based on hospital diagnoses. (4) The determination of stage of gestation at time of exposure to the epidemic is based on date of birth. The viral infection might have occurred outside the official epidemic window; the infant may have had a preterm or postterm delivery. These sources of error, however, should not serve to enhance the findings. The observed viral effect is interpreted as being one of many potential perturbations of gestation. We suggest that it is less the type than the timing of the disturbance during fetal neural development that is critical in determining risk for schizophrenia.

The Geometry and Dynamics of Magnetic Monopoles

Abstract: Systems governed by non-linear differential equations are of fundamental importance in all branches of science, but our understanding of them is still extremely limited. In this book a particular system, describing the interaction of magnetic monopoles, is investigated in detail. The use of new geometrical methods produces a reasonably clear picture of the dynamics for slowly moving monopoles. This picture clarifies the important notion of solitons, which has attracted much attention in recent years. The soliton idea bridges the gap between the concepts of "fields" and "particles, " and is here explored in a fully three-dimensional context. While the background and motivation for the work comes from physics, the presentation is mathematical.This book is interdisciplinary and addresses concerns of theoretical physicists interested in elementary particles or general relativity and mathematicians working in analysis or geometry. The interaction between geometry and physics through non-linear partial differential equations is now at a very exciting stage, and the book is a contribution to this activity.

Social Support: Theory, Research, and Intervention

Abstract: Conceptualizing Social Support Measurement of Social Support Social Support as a Transactional Process within an Ecological Context General Models of Social Support Effects on Well-Being Specific Models of Social Support Social Epidemiology and Support Support Through the Life-Cycle Social Support Interventions: Issues and Problems Social Support Interventions: Prospects Illustrative Support Interventions Social Support: Achievements and Agenda

Toward a theory of marketing control: Environmental context, control types, and consequences.

Abstract: Historically, marketing control research has involved either the development of output-oriented financial controls or the analysis of how financial controls affect performance. This work on marketi...

Narrative and the Self as Relationship

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter explores the nature of stories of self, both as they are told and lived in social life. It examines the story form—or more formally, the structure of narrative accounts. It then describes the way narratives of the self are constructed within social life and the uses to which they are put. As story advances, it become increasingly clear that narratives of the self are not fundamentally possessions of the individual; rather they are products of social interchange—possessions of the socius. This analysis set the stage for a discussion of lived narrative. The chapter proposes the traditional concept of individual selves is fundamentally problematic. What have served as individual traits, mental processes, or personal characteristics can promisingly be viewed as the constituents of relational forms. The form of these relationships is that of the narrative sequence. Thus, by the end of story it can be found that the individual self has all but vanished into the world of relationship.

The biology and enzymology of eukaryotic protein acylation

Abstract: PERSPECTIVES AND SUMMARY 70 CHEMISTRY OF ACYL LINKAGES TO PROTEINS 71 BIOLOGY OF N-MYRISTOYLATION 73 Myristoylation of p60v-src. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. •. . . . . . . 74 M yristoylation Q{ Retrovirus Structura l Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 N-Myristoylated Protein s Have Diff erent Intracellular Destinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Regu lation o f Protein M yristoylation in Response to Hormonal Signa ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 MYRISTOYL COA: PROTEIN N-MYRISTOYL TRANSFERASE 78 An A ssay for NMT. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Fatty Acid Sp ec ificity of NMT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 79 Yeast NMT P eptide Substrate Spec ificity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Importance of Sequ ence Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 NMT in High er Eu karyotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Identification of P otential N-Myristoylproteins from cDNA Data Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 ESTER-LINKED ACYLATION OF CELLULAR PROTEINS 88 M ye lin P roteolipid Proteins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Viral Glycoproteins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Tran sferrin Receptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 92 Mucus Glycoprotein s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 The RAS Family of G Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 94

What is procedural justice? Criteria used by citizens to assess the fairness of legal procedures.

Abstract: This paper examines procedural justice in the context of citizen experiences with the police and courts. It is based on interviews of 652 citizens with recent personal experiences involving those authorities. I will consider two issues: first, whether the justice of the procedures involved influences citizen satisfaction with outcomes and evaluations of legal authorities; and second, how citizens define "fair process" in such settings. The results replicate those of past studies, which found that procedural justice has a major influence on both satisfaction and evaluation. They further suggest that such procedural justice judgments are complex and multifaceted. Seven issues make independent contributions to citizen judgments about whether the legal authorities acted fairly: (1) the degree to which those authorities were motivated to be fair; (2) judgments of their honesty; (3) the degree to which the authorities followed ethical principles of conduct; (4) the extent to which opportunities for representation were provided; (5) the quality of the decisions made; (6) the opportunities for error correction; and (7) whether the authorities behaved in a biased fashion. I found that the meaning of procedural justice varied according to the nature of the situation, not the characteristics of the people involved.

Interprocedural slicing using dependence graphs

Abstract: A slice of a program with respect to a program point p and variable x consists of all statements of the program that might affect the value of x at point p. This paper concerns the problem of interprocedural slicing — generating a slice of an entire program, where the slice crosses the boundaries of procedure calls. To solve this problem, we introduce a new kind of graph to represent programs, called a system dependence graph, which extends previous dependence representations to incorporate collections of procedures (with procedure calls) rather than just monolithic programs. Our main result is an algorithm for interprocedural slicing that uses the new representation.The chief difficulty in interprocedural slicing is correctly accounting for the calling context of a called procedure. To handle this problem, system dependence graphs include some data-dependence edges that represent transitive dependencies due to the effects of procedure calls, in addition to the conventional direct-dependence edges. These edges are constructed with the aid of an auxiliary structure that represents calling and parameter-linkage relationships. This structure takes the form of an attribute grammar. The step of computing the required transitive-dependence edges is reduced to the construction of the subordinate characteristic graphs for the grammar's nonterminals.

Bootstrap Procedures under some Non-I.I.D. Models

Abstract: It is shown in this article that the classical i.i.d. bootstrap remains a valid procedure for estimating the sampling distributions of certain symmetric estimators of location, as long as the random observations are independently drawn from distributions with (essentially) a common location. This may be viewed as a robust property of the classical i.i.d. bootstrap. Also included is a study of the second order properties of a different bootstrap procedure proposed by Wu in the context of heteroscedasticity in regression.

Principles of Optimal Design: Modeling and Computation

Abstract: Design optimization is a standard concept in engineering design, and in other disciplines which utilize mathematical decision-making methods. This textbook focuses on the close relationship between a design problem's mathematical model and the solution-driven methods which optimize it. Along with extensive material on modeling problems, this book also features useful techniques for checking whether a model is suitable for computational treatment. Throughout, key concepts are discussed in the context of why and when a particular algorithm may be successful, and a large number of examples demonstrate the theory or method right after it is presented. This book also contains step-by-step instructions for executing a design optimization project - from building the problem statement to interpreting the computer results. All chapters contain exercises from which instructors can easily build quizzes, and a chapter on 'principles and practice' offers the reader tips and guidance based on the authors' vast research and instruction experience.

Psychology and adult learning

Abstract: This book examines the role of psychology in informing adult education practice. It acknowledges the psychological dimension of adult education work, and explores this dimension in the context of the concerns of adult educators. The approach is to examine the most important traditions of some key psychological theories and to discuss the issues and problems in applying them to an understanding of adult learning and development. The text is ideally suited for those who seek a critical understanding of psychological theory and research from the perspective of the adult educator.

Disability Beyond Stigma: Social Interaction, Discrimination, and Activism

Abstract: This article critiques the assumptions about the nature and meaning of disability advanced in social-psychological writing, suggests the origins of these assumptions, and proposes a return to a Lewinian/minority-group analysis of the situation of people with disabilities. It concludes by placing the articles in this issue of the Journal of Social Issues in context and by presenting questions in need of further exploration.

Validity of Self‐reported Alcohol Use: a literature review and assessment*

Abstract: SummaryRecently, there has been increased attention to the validity of self-reported alcohol use. Yet, much of theliterature appears to be inappropriately seeking the definitive answer to a relative question, e.g. are self-reportsof alcohol use valid.^. The literature on the validity of self-reported alcohol use was reviewed with a primaryfocus on concurrent criterion-oriented validity. Validity studies using collateral reports, diaries, official records,different interviewing methods, laboratory tests and multiple measures were assessed. It is concluded thatresearch on the validity of self-reported alcohol use should emphasize the interactions of the respondent, theinterviewer, the information being obtained and the context of the interview to determine under whichconditions valid responses can be maximized. Further, research on validity should focus on specific processesinvolved in providing accurate responses. Emphasis should be placed on developing a range of strategies anddetermining their appropriateness for obtaining more accurate reports from specific populations.IntroductionControversy surrounding the validity of self-reported alcohol use has heightened in the last fewyears. The fact that such a controversy existsconcerning this complex issue in the field of alcoholstudies is a healthy sign that more rigorous examina-tion of important methodological issues is occurringwithin the clinical and research communities.Recently, two viewpoints have been emergingconcerning the use of self-reports of alcohol use.The first is represented by Watson and his colleag-ues (1984; 1985) who found only a modest corre-spondence between reports of alcohol consumptionby alcoholics and their significant others (collater-als) over time. "The data, then, casts serious doubton the utility of self-report follow-up studies, and

Power and criticism : poststructural investigations in education

Abstract: Structural analyses and prescriptions have had an important influence on contemporary education. This work identifies and explores prominent structural themes in educational discourse and practice and places the ideas of Foucault, Derrida, Rorty and Habermas within the context of education.

The Ecological Context of Life History Evolution

Abstract: There is now a good theoretical understanding of life history evolution, and detailed explicit optimality models have been constructed. These present a challenge for empirical work examining some of the assumptions, such as the extent and mechanisms of the costs of growth and reproduction. In addition, there is an obvious need for comparative tests of the models. These tests, properly applied, may be particularly informative because they can deal with multiple independent variables, including ecological variables, and can reveal broad trends against a background of constraints on optima and the rate of evolutionary approach to them. Life histories are the probabilities of survival and the rates of reproduction at each age in the life-span. Reproduction is costly, so that fertility at all ages cannot simultaneously be maximized by natural selection. Allocation of reproductive effort has evolved in response to the demographic impact of different environments but is constrained by genetic variance and evolutionary history.

Priming and communication: Social determinants of information use in judgments of life satisfaction

Abstract: Two experiments examined the effects of answering a question about a specific component of life satisfaction on respondents' assessment of their overall satisfaction with life. The results suggest that the use of primed information in forming subsequent judgments is determined by Grice's conversational norms. In general, answering the specific question increases the accessibility of information relevant to that question. However, the effect that this has on the general judgment depends on the way in which the two questions are presented. When the two questions are merely placed in sequence without a conversational context, the answer to the subsequent general question is based in part on the primed specific information. As a result, the answer to the general question becomes similar to that for the specific question (i.e. assimilation). However, this does not occur when the two questions are placed in a communication context. Conversational rules dictate that communicators should be informative and should avoid redundancy in their answers. Therefore, when a specific and a general question are perceived as belonging to the same conversational context, the information on which the answer to the specific question was based is disregarded when answering the general one. This attenuates the assimilation effect. The conditions under which these different processes occur are identified and experimentally manipulated, and the implications of these findings for models of information use in judgment are discussed.

Concomitant-Variable Latent-Class Models

Abstract: This article introduces and illustrates a new type of latent-class model in which the probability of latent-class membership is functionally related to concomitant variables with known distribution. The function (or so-called submodel) may be logistic, exponential, or another suitable form. Concomitant-variable models supplement latent-class models incorporating grouping by providing more parsimonious representations of data for some cases. Also, concomitant-variable models are useful when grouping models involve a greater number of parameters than can be meaningfully fit to existing data sets. Although parameter estimates may be calculated using standard iterative procedures such as the Newton—Raphson method, sample analyses presented here employ a derivative-free approach known as the simplex method. A general procedure for imposing linear constraints on the parameter estimates is introduced. A data set involving arithmetic test items in a mastery testing context is used to illustrate fitting a...

Computer-based support for group problem-finding: an exprimental investigation

Abstract: There is very little empirical research available on the effectiveness of decision support systems applied to decision-making groups operating in face-to-face meetings. In order to expand research in this area, a laboratory study was undertaken to examine the effects of group decision support systems (GDSS) technology on group decision quality and individual perceptions within a problem-finding context. A crisis management task served as the decision-making context. Two versions of the experimental task, one higher in difficulty and the other lower in difficulty, were administered to GDSS-supported and non-supported groups, yielding a 2 x 2 factorial design. Decision quality was significantly better in those groups that received GDSS support. The GDSS was particularly helpful in in the groups receiving the task of higher difficulty. Members' decision confidence and satisfaction with the decision process were, however, lower in the GDSS-supported groups than in the nonsupported groups. These findings expand knowledge of the applicability of GDSS for decision-making tasks and suggest that dissatisfaction maybe a stumbling block in user acceptance of these systems.

Industry Effects and Appropriability Measures in the Stock Market's Valuation of R&D and Patents

Abstract: This paper examines the stock market's valuation of a firm's innovative activity. We estimate the market's relative valuation of firms' tangible and intangible assets, focusing on knowledge capital in the form of accumulated "stocks" of R&D and patents. We tried to improve upon our estimates of the stock market's valuation of knowledge capital embodied in such "stocks" by bringing in measures of the appropriability environment facing a firm from the Yale Survey on Industrial Research and Development. The responses to Survey questions about the effectiveness of patents as a mechanism for protecting the returns from innovation turn out to be of some use: there is evidence of an interaction between industry level measures of the effectiveness of patents and the market's valuation of a firm's past R&D and patenting performance, as well as its current R&D moves. We find no evidence, however, that other appropriability mechanisms differ enough across industries to leave measurable traces in our data. The structure of the Yale Survey makes it possible to estimate the sampling error in the appropriability measures derived from it. This information was used by us in an errors-in-variables context, but with little success. In the absence of R&D variables, our estimates imply that a two standard deviation increase in our index of patent effectiveness would raise the value of a patent held by our average firm from $0.4 million to $1.0 million. When R&D variables are introduced into the equations, the patents variables become insignificant - R&D expenditures are a better measure of input to the innovative function of firms than patents are of its output - but we estimate that the same experiment would induce changes in q of between 10 and 27 percent for the average firm, approximately doubling the market's valuation of this kind of capital.