Showing papers on "Convention on Biological Diversity published in 1995"

Natural Product Drug Discovery and Development: New Perspectives on International Collaboration

Abstract: Until recently, the prevailing attitude in developed nations regarded the world's genetic resources, which are mainly concentrated in the developing world, as a common resource of humankind, to be exploited freely irrespective of national origin. With the devastation being wreaked in the tropical rainforests and the resurgence in interest in recent years in the discovery of novel drugs from natural sources, particularly plants and marine organisms, the international scientific community has realized that the conservation of these global genetic resources and the indigenous knowledge associated with their use are of primary importance if their potential is to be fully explored. With this realization has come a recognition that these goals must be achieved through collaboration with, and fair and equitable compensation of, the scientists and communities of the genetically rich source countries. The signing of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity by nearly all of the World's nations has emphasized the need for the implementation of such policies. In this review, the articles of the Convention of relevance to the activities and practices of the natural products scientific community are briefly discussed. This discussion is followed by a summary of policies for international collaboration and compensation being implemented by several developed country organizations, and the perspectives on the current developments given by representatives of some of the source countries located in the regions of greatest biodiversity.

An introduction to plant germplasm exploration and collecting: planning, methods and procedures, follow-up

Abstract: The significant developments that have occurred in information technologies and molecular genetics and genomics have had a direct and beneficial impact on germplasm exploration and collecting. The powerful information-management tools that are now available to collectors allow them to combine many different data sets and to extract much more practically useful and relevant information for the planning of collecting missions as well as the collecting itself. Furthermore, the political and legal situations regarding the status of and ownership of plant genetic resources have changed drastically over the past 15 years. The implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (in 1993), the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (in 2006) and the establishment of the Nagoya Protocol (in 2011) have had and continue to have a significant impact on matters related to the access and benefit sharing of plant genetic resources. Ethical considerations and awareness have also evolved and have become more important for individual scientists when collecting germplasm in foreign countries.

National biodiversity planning : guidelines based on early experiences around the world

Abstract: Biodiversity captured worldwide attention at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro when 150 nations signed the Convention on Biological Diversity. Although most countries by now have had some experience planning and implementing biodiversity-related measures, few have approached them in the comprehensive, integrated manner required by the Convention. This practical handbook offers background information, case-study examples and analysis, and step-by-step guidelines for planning and implementing national biodiversity strategies and action plans. Intended for use by government, communities, business and industry, and non-governmental organizations, it presents an "illustrative biodiversity-planning process" based on the real-world experiences of seventeen countries already developing national strategies, plans, and programs.

The Ramsar Convention Comes of Age

Abstract: The second of February 1992 marked the 21 st anniversary of the adoption of the 1971 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat, commonly known as the Ramsar Convention after the town in Iran where it was concluded. For those more familiar with modern concepts of majority, 21 December 1993 constituted the 18th anniversary of its entry into force. The period between these two dates witnessed a significant endeavour by the international community, through the signature at the Rio Earth Summit of the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, to establish a basic conceptual framework to underpin the various conservation initiatives embodied in the now substantial number of international treaties for the protection of wildlife. This framework, which was arguably already emerging in customary international law, emphasises a broad, threefold obligation regarding the conservation of ecosystems, of species and of genetic diversity within species. As each species, and indeed each individual member of that species, exists not in isolation but as a functioning unit within a wider ecosystem, it is axiomatic that the protection of natural habitats must continue to play a particularly crucial role in the global conservation effort.

Environmental indicators for global cooperation

Abstract: The prominence given to countries in global fora has traditionally been based on economic and political consideration. This paper examines a broader approach that includes two important environmental factors - a country's contribution to global pollution, and the global environmental benefits derived from its natural areas and biodiversity.

The forest issue in post-UNCED international negotiations: conflicting interests and fora for reconciliation

Abstract: The article is concerned with the international deliberations for a follow-up mechanism of the UNCED Statement of Forest Principles. The forest issue is complicated by the different scientific approaches to the deforestation problem, as represented by climate change and biodiversity respectively. From the former perspective, reforestation may seem an adequate remedy to solve the problem, while from the latter, biodiversity, much more weight must be put on conservation and sustainable utilization. An additional complication is presented by the political divide between developing and industrialized countries concerning the approach to the problem of deforestation. The focus of the article is on the current three main international arenas in which the issue is being discussed: (i) addressing the forest issue within the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity, (ii) enlarging the scope of the International Agreement on Tropical Timber (ITTA) to include all types of forests, and (iii) pursuing the forest issue in a World Commission on Forests and Sustainable Development. The feasibility of achieving agreement and effective implementation within the framework of the various options is the focal point of the discussion.

Zoological Parks and the Conservation of Biological Diversity: Linking ex situ and in situ Conservation Efforts:

Abstract: Linking in situ and ex situ conservation activities represents a major opportunity in the effort to conserve global biological diversity. Zoological parks, aquaria, botanical parks and similar institutions are evolving into conservation-oriented institutions that increasingly contribute to the global conservation strategy embodied in the Convention on Biological Diversity. Through public education, original research oriented toward conservation, living collections, gene banks, fundraising linkages, and direct financial inputs for in situ conservation, these institutions serve a vital function in the preservation of options for future conservation and utilization of biological resources. In this regard, these institutions are responding to the need for linkage of ex situ and in situ conservation activities. This paper shows the range of opportunities available to link conservation efforts of zoos with in situ conservation of biological diversity, and provides examples of past achievements in this area.

Biodiversity, ethics and international law

Abstract: This article examines the ethical dimensions of the problem of global biodiversity loss by reference to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity. It suggests that biodiversity conservation issues require us to clarfy the moral and ethicalfoundations of our relationship to the natural world and to each other. This may require the development of a new theory or theories of ethics and of international distributive justice to encompass the distribution of goods, opportunities and other resources not only between humans, but also between humans and non-human elements of nature, as well as between present and future generations. The article suggests such theories would assist the explication, implementation andfuture development of the Convention, thereby providing visions of a more just international order and a much-needed ethical framework to guide how we ought to live our lives.*

Biodiversity Conservation and Economic Development: Local and Global Dimensions

Abstract: The Convention on Biological Diversity, the Biodiversity Convention for short, is motivated first and foremost by the desire to protect an asset of multifaceted value to both current and future generations. It speaks of ‘the intrinsic value of biological diversity and of the ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of biological diversity and it s components.’1 Although not cast in these terms, this long list of attributes is encapsulated in the concept of total economic value (TEV). Most of the attributes refer to the value of biodiversity in use, but ‘intrinsic value’ is clearly a notion that is independent of use. In economic analysis, the value placed on biotic resources which is independent of the use to which those resources are or could be put is defined as non-use value. At least one component of this non-use value, ‘existence value’, captures the sense of the ‘intrinsic value’ of biological resources referred to in the convention [Turner and Pearce, 1992]. While the use value of biotic resources is determined in the same way as the value in use of any other resources — by reference to the social opportunity cost of those resources — and is captured by the expected consumer surplus associated with their use, the estimation of non-use value is on less certain ground. Nonetheless, the TEV of biodiversity may be expressed as the sum of expected consumer surplus and the existence value of biotic resources.

Conservation of Biodiversity and Sustainable Development

Abstract: Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is a term that is now part of the vocabulary of policymakers, academics, lawyers, and laypeople, and yet its full meaning is often not understood. Although Agenda 21 does not define biodiversity, the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity defines it as “the variability among living organisms from all sources... and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems” (Johnson 1993).

The Global Plant Genetic Resources System: A Competition-Cooperation Paradox

Abstract: The international plant genetic resources system is a loosely coordinated, often politicized network among national germplasm collections, which has encouraged the exploration, collection, evaluation, preservation and distribution of germplasm. During the last two decades, the system has been the focus of major debates, characterized as Seed Wars, over the international control of plant genetic resources. Key organizations such as the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization's Commission on Plant Genetic Resources, and the United Nations' Convention on Biological Diversity have attempted to address the central issues of access to genetic resources including elite lines, funding and responsibility for biodiversity protection, treatment of biotechnology and intellectual property rights, and the technical and social challenges of conserving genetic materials. Despite these efforts, all nations are caught in a paradox of competition and cooperation. While each nation wishes to capture as much of the world's genetic resources as possible, each is depended on many other nations for a continued supply of these dynamic and widely dispersed resources. The paradox, however, is not felt equally by all nations with some, particularly among the developed nations, apparently capable of both competing and cooperating successfully. Nonetheless, in both the short run, and particularly in the long run, it is in the best interest of all nations in this global community to find efficient and socially just ways to cooperate in conservation of biodiversity and to use it sustainably and equitably.

The Convention on Biological Diversity: Promise and Frustration:

Abstract: The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which was signed at the "Earth Summit" in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, has now been ratified by over 110 countries. The CBD is comprehensive, addressing biological diversity in terms of genes, species, and ecosystems, whether in their natural state or modified by human intervention. It is also the first environmental treaty to address equity issues, including the recognition of the role of indigenous and local communities in conserving biodiversity. The comprehensiveness of the treaty constitutes one of its main strengths, but its complexity also helps explain the difficulties it has encountered and the strong forces that threaten to weaken its development and implementation. The first meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention (COP) was held in the Bahamas in late 1994. This paper introduces the Convention, highlights the results of the first COP, and discusses some of the major issues in conserving biodiversity, includingforests,funding, inte...

Keep all the pieces: Systematics 2000 and world conservation

Abstract: Conserving biological diversity requires a major effort in conducting survey and inventories, establishing priorities, selecting protected areas, managing resources and monitoring the effects of management. Systematics has an important contribution to make to each of these five major activities. Further, the new Convention on Biological Diversity requires systematics information to support action under virtually all of its substantive conservation and sustainable use articles. It seems apparent that large reference collections contribute directly to development, and development assistance agencies should recognize that investing in maintaining these collections is a legitimate form of development assistance.

Down in the woods they have no names — BioNET-INTERNATIONAL. Strengthening systematics in developing countries

Abstract: The biosystematic crisis in the developing world is occasioned by the inadequacy of indigenous capabilities; the withdrawal of free-services by the major world centres of excellence; and the ever-increasing need for biosystematics to support sustainable agricultural development and use of biodiversity. Developing countries are unable to meet their obligations, as signatories, to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The most cost-effective and technically best solution is to establish and sustain realistic self-reliance in biosystematics within developing country sub-regions, through mobilization and pooling of resources for optimum use, and their enhancement through donor-funded human resource and capacity building programmes. BioNET-INTERNATIONAL as a global technical cooperation network comprized of inter-linked sub-regional LOOPs (Locally Organised and Operated Partnerships) provides a sustainable mechanism for achieving this objective. Its initial concern with Invertebrates and Microorganisms is without prejudice to its ultimate scope. The first LOOP, CARINET was established for the Caribbean sub-region in December 1993 and LOOPs for East Africa, South East Asia and South Pacific are underway. The world-wide network is expected to be in place within five years.

Attitudes and policies of the directors of South African nature conservation departments toward the protection of biological diversity

Abstract: This study focuses on the attitudes and policies of the directors of nature conservation departments in relation to decisions affecting the protection of biological diversity (biodiversity) in South Africa. The study was conducted in 1991, and represents a summary of the attitudes and policies of 12 of the directors of the then 17 nature conservation departments in South Africa and the so-called 'homeland states'. South Africa has recently signed the Convention on Biological Diversity (UNEP 1992). It is suggested that this should lead to the establishment of a collaborative national biodiversity body, and national strategy for the conservation of South Africa's biodiversity. The conservation of biodiversity is an outcome of the successful management of systems, but a national strategy will enhance such default conservation. Administrative changes that counter the problems of divided responsibilities and the duplication of efforts, are called for. Socio-economic considerations are considered pivotal to protection of biodiversity, and must be integrated into all strategies. There is a genuine commitment to the preservation of biodiversity on the part of these directors. The emphasis is at species level, and on large mammals, birds and plants. This needs to be expanded. The identification and monitoring of biodiversity in South Africa needs to be strengthened. Finances clearly constrain their efforts.

The politics of patent legislation in biotechnology: an international review.

Abstract: The realization of the economic value of the genetic resources has prompted an international debate about property rights to genetic resources. The international debate pertaining to patenting of genetic material is the main theme of this chapter. As a backdrop for the international debate, the chapter starts out with a summary of the main events and arguments in the expanding scope of patent legislation in biotechnological inventions. Summing up, the new biotechnologies represent a tool which meets the legal requirements for patenting biological material. From the industry's point of view, biotechnology also necessitates patenting. On the negative side, defending a patent is often a long and costly business, and the trend is that patenting will mainly benefit the bigger and stronger companies and thus weaken public control over the rapid developments in biotechnology. A central argument in the chapter is that without sophisticated biotechnological tools, trained scientists, and adequate infrastructure, patenting is, as yet, hardly a viable solution for the majority of developing countries. Generich developing countries fear that developments in patent legislation will pave the way for increased Northern control over Third World natural resources. The International Convention on Biological Diversity goes some way in making amends to this situation, but the gene-poor, least developed countries may still have reason to fear that they will lose access to breeding material. In a long-term perspective, the implications may be detrimental for resource conservation in developing countries. In conclusion, the patent question seems to remain unresolved and may still be one of the most likely stumbling blocks for future ratifications and implementation of the Biodiversity Convention.

Impacts on Canadian agriculture of the Convention on Biological Diversity

Abstract: Canada was among the first nations to sign and ratify the Convention on Biological Diversity. With strong support from the federal government, the Canadian delegation played a key role in its negotiation. The Convention has three major elements: (1) the conservation of biodiversity; (2) the sustainable use of biodiversity; and (3) the equitable sharing of benefits derived from the use of biodiversity. Canada has developed a draft strategy to meet our obligations as a signatory nation. This strategy was developed with input from various levels of government and from a wide range of individuals and organizations. The benefits to agriculture are increased resources for the conservation of biodiversity, which is vital to this industry, and continued access to germplasm. The costs are the funds necessary to conserve, an obligation to share knowledge and benefits from genetic resources and greater regulation of germplasm exchange. Key words: Biodiversity, conservation, germplasm, convention, genetic resources

Should a biosafety protocol be negotiated as part of the Biodiversity Convention

Abstract: Developments in genetic engineering technology are outpacing the policy debate. The Earth Summit failed in 1992 to create suitable international controls on the safe handling, transfer and use of genetically manipulated organisms (GMOs). This paper presents the case that now, with the negotiations in the Convention on Biological Diversity considering the need for and modalities of a biosafety protocol, it is time to set up a legally binding instrument. Most countries in the world have regulations, and there are real fears that countries in the developing world may be used as testing grounds for risky experiments. There is also a strong case for harmonizing the regulation of biotech at an international level, if there is ever to be effective verification and policing of the transfer and exchange of GMOs. Adding to the arguments for the need for a protocol are the scientific uncertainties surrounding the safety of environmental release of GMOs. However, given the apparent magnitude of these scientific uncertainties, it is essential that a global protocol is not cast in a light which reinforces the seductive but misleading classical mode of risk assessment and management, and its underlying epistemology.

International Environmental Law: Boundaries, Landmarks, and Realities

Abstract: tenth anniversary of Natural Resources & Environment is an auspicious occasion for reviewing U.S. environmental law. It also offers a felicitous opportunity to better understand that influential, sometimes awkward, cousin of U.S. environmental law: international environmental law (IEL). Once overshadowed by its prominent parents, national environmental laws (including those of the United States) and international law, this youthful and dynamic subject has come of age in its own right. IEL now patrols an increasingly interconnected and interdependent world of expanding legal boundaries and is firmly ensconced in the law school curriculum, even as practitioners and judges at all levels, come alive to its import and impact. Historically, the United States believed that its domestic environmental laws could solve the problems of the environment, largely because assaults on the natural environment did not have or were not perceived as having much transnational impact or significance. The reality and perception have changed. Many environmental problems such as global warming, the endangered ozone layer, vanishing biodiversity, and acid rain have outstripped the jurisdiction, outreach, and grasp of the U.S. legal system, and require international solutions. Beginning with the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, in which the United States played a prominent role, the world has come alive to the importance of the new subject of international environmental law, boasting a corpus of nearly 300 multilateral treaties covering almost every environmental topic. This article begins by defining IEL and tries to dispel some misconceptions about its jurisprudential nature. It then attempts to sketch the growth of IEL through three historic landmarks: the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, the World Commission on Environment and Development, and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Devel-

Wildlife Utilization: A New International Mechanism for the Protection of Biological Diversity

Abstract: Conserving biological diversity is not simply a matter of establishing protected areas and rescuing threatened species. Though clearly essential, protecting species often does not meet people's (and nations') short-term needs and consequently may not withstand the pressures of population growth and resource exploitation. Biodiversity must also be studied for its role in the biosphere and potential use, and used through sustainable management systems that provide for future as well as present human needs. Introduction 305 I. Economic Foundations of Wildlife Utilization 318 A. The Theory of Comparative Advantage 321 B. Foreign Exchange and Export Diversification Requirements 322 C. Recent Resurgence in Biotechnological Research 322 II. The Rio Convention On Biological Diversity: Recognizing The Economic Value Of Biological Diversity 324 A. Background on the Biodiversity Convention 324 B. The Travaux Preparatories 325 C. Evaluating the Potential for U.S. Participation 333 III. Forms Of Investment In Wildlife Utilization: Capturing The Economic Value Of Biological Diversity 334 A. Biological Extraction 335 B. Biological Prospecting 336 C. Sample Collecting Agreements 340 E. Eco Tourism 342 F. Community Development 343 IV. The Aims And Potential Of Wildlife Utilization 343 A. From the Perspective of Developing Countries 343 1. Attraction of Foreign Investment 346 2. Diversification of the Export Base 347 3. Generation of Foreign Exchange 348 4. Transfer of Modern Technology 348 5. Linkages with the Local Economy 349 6. Protection of Natural Habitats and Indigenous Communities 350 7. Regional Development 350 8. Emergence of Biotechnology Industry 351 9. Preservations of Biodiversity for Future Generations 351 B. From the Perspective of Transnational Corporations 353 1. Access to Biological Resources 353 2. Access to Local Expertise and Qualified Labor 354 3. Duty Free Import Regimes 354 4. Reduction of Research and Development Expenditures 354 5. Home Market Competitiveness 355 C. From the Perspective of Domestic Investors 355 1. Strengthen International Competitiveness 355 2. Benefit from Special Investment Measures 355 3. Transfer of Modern Technology 356 D. From the Perspective of Industrialized Countries 356 1. Development of the Biotechnology Industry 356 2. Global Ecosystem Services 357 3. Protection of Biodiversity for Future Generations 357 4. Lower Consumer Prices 357 5. International Competitiveness 357 6. Strengthening of the Free Market System 357 7. Preservation of International Peace and Security 357 V. Law and Policy Recommendations for a Wildlife Utilization Strategy 357 A. …

Selecting and Costing a Representative Expansion of the NSW Protected Area Network

Abstract: The conservation of biological diversity is seen as a national and an international issue of importance to Australians. This is indicated by Australia's decision to sign the Convention on Biological Diversity. However, without significant policy change to funding levels and the types of conservation mechanisms used1 biological diversity values are likely to be conserved at a less than the socially optimal level implied by Australia,s ratification of the convention. Traditional approaches to meeting conservation targets have been via land acquisition and management by government, future approaches may need to include off-reserve conservation mechanisms that use a variety of economic instruments. This paper combines economic and geographical information system techniques to estimate the cost of expanding the NS\V protected area network to a range of target levels with on and off reserve mechanisms. An algorithm was developed to select areas to complement the existing conservation system and be representative of 124 environmental domain classifications. To ensure cost effectiveness, target representation levels were achieved by selection of areas in a priority order based on land use. Results indicate that land acquisition costs of achieving a 10% level of environmental region representation in NSW are not prohibitive, in fact they may equate to something like the purchase cost of four or five F-18 fighter jets. Acquisition costs of raising the area representation of each of the defined environmental domains to 10% is estimated at $360 million. However, ongoing setup and management costs to control threats to loss of biodiversity values represent a much stronger pull on the government purse.

The relationship between the Convention on Biological Diversity and other international treaties on the protection of wildlife

Abstract: 1. Introduction. 2. The Biodiversity Convention and its relationship with the other treaties. 3. Subjects regulated only by the Biodiversity Convention. 4. Issues already regulated at an international level: the potential conflicts. 5. Issues already regulated at an international level: the complementary use of different provisions. 6. Conclusions.

Selecting and Costing a Representative Expansion of the NSW Protected Area Network

Abstract: The conservation of biological diversity is seen as a national and an international issue of importance to Australians. This is indicated by Australia's decision to sign the Convention on Biological Diversity. However, without significant policy change to funding levels and the types of conservation mechanisms used1 biological diversity values are likely to be conserved at a less than the socially optimal level implied by Australia,s ratification of the convention. Traditional approaches to meeting conservation targets have been via land acquisition and management by government, future approaches may need to include off-reserve conservation mechanisms that use a variety of economic instruments. This paper combines economic and geographical information system techniques to estimate the cost of expanding the NS\V protected area network to a range of target levels with on and off reserve mechanisms. An algorithm was developed to select areas to complement the existing conservation system and be representative of 124 environmental domain classifications. To ensure cost effectiveness, target representation levels were achieved by selection of areas in a priority order based on land use. Results indicate that land acquisition costs of achieving a 10% level of environmental region representation in NSW are not prohibitive, in fact they may equate to something like the purchase cost of four or five F-18 fighter jets. Acquisition costs of raising the area representation of each of the defined environmental domains to 10% is estimated at $360 million. However, ongoing setup and management costs to control threats to loss of biodiversity values represent a much stronger pull on the government purse.