Showing papers on "Convention on Biological Diversity published in 2006"

Top 20 environmental weeds for classical biological control in Europe: a review of opportunities, regulations and other barriers to adoption.

Abstract: Summary Classical biological control remains the only tool available for permanent ecological and economic management of invasive alien species that flourish through absence of their co-evolved natural enemies. As such, this approach is recognized as a key tool for alien species management by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) and the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (ESIAS). Successful classical biological control programmes abound around the world, despite disproportionate attention being given to occasional and predictable non-target impacts. Despite more than 130 case histories in Europe against insect pests, no exotic classical biological control agent has been released in the EU against an alien invasive weed. This dearth has occurred in the face of increasing numbers of exotic invasive plants being imported and taking over National Parks, forests and amenity areas in this region, as well as a global increase in the use of classical biological control around the world. This paper reviews potential European weed targets for classical biological control from ecological and socioeconomic perspectives using the criteria of historical biological control success, taxonomic isolation from European native flora, likely availability of biological control agents, invasiveness outside Europe and value to primary industry and horticulture (potential for conflicts of interest). We also review why classical biological control of European exotic plants remains untested, considering problems of funding and public perception. Finally, we consider the regulatory framework that surrounds such biological control activities within constituent countries of the EU to suggest how this approach may be adopted in the future for managing invasive exotic weeds in Europe.

Agroforestry and Biodiversity Conservation – Traditional Practices, Present Dynamics, and Lessons for the Future

Abstract: The environmental services that agroforestry practices can provide, and especially their potential contribution to the conservation of biodiversity, have only recently attracted wider at- tention among agroforestry and conservation scientists. This new view is consistent with the eco- system approach to natural resource management advocated by the Convention on Biological Diversity. This collection of six papers, which is based on a Workshop held in June-July 2004, brings together studies of biodiversity impacts of traditional agroforestry practices from Central and South America, Africa and Asia. The contributions highlight the considerable potential of traditional agroforestry practices to support biodiversity conservation, but also show their limits. These include the importance of sufficient areas of natural habitat and of appropriate hunting regulations for maintaining high levels of biodiversity in agroforestry land use mosaics, as well as the critical role of markets for tree products and of a favourable policy environment for agro- forestry land uses. In combination the case studies suggest that maintaining diversity in approaches to management of agroforestry systems, along with a pragmatic, undogmatic view on natural resource management, will provide the widest range of options for adapting to changing land use conditions.

Institutional Interaction in Global Environmental Governance. Synergy and Conflict among International and EU Policies

Abstract: This systematic investigation of the interaction among international and European institutions provides both a theoretical framework for analysis and the first broad overview of this largely uncharted field of research. By offering detailed case studies and a systematic analysis of results, the book examines the effects of institutional interaction on environmental governance and explores the ways in which international and European Union policies can either reinforce or undercut one another.After a conceptual overview in which Oberthur and Gehring identify three causal mechanisms by which institutional interaction can affect environmental governance, ten case studies apply this theoretical approach. Six cases use an international institution as their starting point and four begin with a European Union legal instrument. The international regimes examined include the widely known Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and World Trade Organization and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The EU instruments analyzed include lesser-known directives on the protection of habitats, the deliberate release of genetically modified organisms into the environment, and air quality. The studies show that although conflict and interference among different regimes and institutions do take place, synergistic interactions are common. The findings on the importance of, and mechanisms behind, these outcomes offer valuable insights for both scholars and policymakers.Contributors:Beatrice Chaytor, Clare Coffey, Andrew Farmer, Thomas Gehring, John Lanchbery, Sebastian Oberthur, Alice Palmer, G. Kristin Rosendal, Jon Birger Skjaerseth, Olav Schram Stokke, Ingmar von Homeyer, Jacob Werksman, Jorgen Wettestad

Linking biodiversity, diet and health in policy and practice

Abstract: Simplification of human diets associated with increased accessibility of inexpensive agricultural commodities and erosion of agrobiodiversity leads to nutrient deficiencies and excess energy consumption. Non-communicable diseases are growing causes of death and disability worldwide. Successful food systems in transition effectively draw on locally-available foods, food variety and traditional food cultures. In practice this process involves empirical research, public policy, promotion and applied action in support of multi-sectoral, community-based strategies linking rural producers and urban consumers, subsistence and market economies, and traditional and modern food systems. Implementation of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute's Global Nutrition Strategy in Sub-Saharan Africa offers a useful case study. Relevant policy platforms, in which biodiversity conservation and nutrition are and should be linked, include the Millennium Development Goals, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, Food-Based Dietary Guidelines, Right to Adequate Food and UN Human Rights Commission's Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. The largely unexplored health benefits of cultivated and wild plants include micronutrient intake and functions related to energy density, glycaemic control, oxidative stress and immuno-stimulation. Research on the properties of neglected and underutilized species and local varieties deserves higher priority. In tests of the hypothesis that biodiversity is essential for dietary diversity and health, quantitative indicators of dietary and biological diversity can be combined with nutrition and health outcomes at the population level. That traditional systems once lost are hard to recreate underlines the imperative for timely documentation, compilation and dissemination of eroding knowledge of biodiversity and the use of food culture for promoting positive behaviours.

Biodiversity as a source of anticancer drugs.

Abstract: Natural Products have been the most significant source of drugs and drug leads in history. Their dominant role in cancer chemotherapeutics is clear with about 74% of anticancer compounds being either natural products, or natural product-derived. The biodiversity of the world provides a resource of unlimited structural diversity for bioprospecting by international drug discovery programs such as the ICBGs and NCDDGs, the latter focusing exclusively on anticancer compounds. However, many sources of natural products remain largely untapped. Technology is gradually overcoming the traditional difficulties encountered in natural products research by improving access to biodiverse resources, and ensuring the compatibility of samples with high throughput procedures. However, the acquisition of predictive biodiversity remains challenging. Plant and organism species may be selected on the basis of potentially useful phytochemical composition by consulting ethnopharmacological, chemosystematic, and ecological information. On the conservation/political front, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is allaying the anxiety surrounding the notion of biopiracy, which has defeated many attempts to discover and develop new natural products for human benefit. As it becomes increasingly evident and important, the CBD fosters cooperation and adaptation to new regulations and collaborative research agreements with source countries. Even as the past inadequacies of combinatorial chemistry are being analyzed, the intrinsic value of natural products as a source of drug leads is being increasingly appreciated. Their rich structural and stereochemical characteristics make them valuable as templates for exploring novel molecular diversity with the aim of synthesizing lead generation libraries with greater biological relevance. This will ensure an ample supply of starting materials for screening against the multitude of potentially druggable targets uncovered by genomics technologies. Far from being mutually exclusive, biodiversity and genomics should be the driving force of drug discovery in the 21st century.

Protected areas: a prism for a changing world

Abstract: The centrality of protected areas in biodiversity conservation has not changed over the past three decades, but we now know that biodiversity conservation represents a much more complex and dynamic picture than was once thought. In contrast to the earlier primarily aesthetic motivation (and still valid in its own right), the role of protected areas in biodiversity conservation is now widely accepted. Internationally, their importance has been recognized by the Convention on Biological Diversity and by the creation of intergovernmental funding agencies such as the Global Environmental Facility. As I discuss here, the rate of creation of new protected areas has increased rapidly to meet the need for a protected representative set of the ecosystems of the world. But that is only the start of the task.

Measuring the Costs and Benefits of Conservation to Local Communities

Abstract: Paradigms of community-based conservation that emerged in the 1990s proposed to link the twin goals of conservation and sustainable development under a single rubric This was and is a very sexy idea, linking as it does the protection of biodiversity and the alleviation of poverty for the most marginal human societies More specifically, it links the protection of wildlife and wild landscapes with the protection of traditional indigenous peoples In fact, ideas of wilderness and traditional societies are inextricably linked in the western psyche To quote Niezen (2003:5), indigenous peoples are "the estimated three hundred million people from four thousand distinct societies, strongly attached to what were recently, and in a few instances still are, the world's last wild places" This is a paradigm out of which international conservation organizations have squeezed a lot of mileage in the past ten or fifteen years In fact, the World Wildlife Fund (1997) went so far as to suggest that the future of biodiversity conservation and the future of indigenous societies are inextricably linked on a global scale The secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2004) also goes to great lengths to emphasize the importance of protecting biodiversity and the livelihoods of those people who still depend on direct access to natural resources for their livelihoods (see Nugent 1994 for a comprehensive and accessible critique) Indigenous activists have also used this linkage in advocating for their rights and in building a global indigenous people's movement, but with limited, and sometimes self-defeating, results (Conklin and Graham 1995; Igoe 2005b; Niezen 2004)1 Not surprisingly, the past ten years have seen an explosion of anthropological work on traditional environmental knowledge and the promotion of 'people-centered' biodiversity conservation As a graduate student doing research with Maasai communities in the mid-1990s in Tanzania, I was very excited when I heard the idea of community-based conservation The people with whom I worked were fed up with traditional approaches to conservation Many of them had been evicted from Tarangire National Park when it was gazetted in 1971 It seemed to me that a new approach to conservation, one that would prioritize community needs and incorporate local people's environmental knowledge, was definitely needed in my research area2 However, local people believed that community-based approaches to conservation were simply a new ploy for limiting their access to the natural resources So far, I haven't seen anything that would contradict that notion Large conservation organizations, the Tanzanian Government, and a few of the Maasai activists have used the idea of community conservation to promote themselves and their agendas-especially in terms of fundraising In the meanwhile, Maasai and other rural Tanzanians continue to be marginalized and divested of land and other natural resources It took me some time to come to terms with this schism between what I actually saw in the field and what I expected and wanted to see3 I have since learned that the types of problems I saw in Tanzania are far from unique In response, I have been working within Dan Brockington's research project called the Social Impacts of Protected Areas4 The project emphasizes the need to recognize that protected areas have displaced and impoverished people on a global scale Before we can understand the benefits of conservation to communities, we must first understand the opportunity costs of protected areas-otherwise we cannot know whether communities are experiencing a net loss or a net gain (Brockington et al 2006; Brockington and Igoe forthcoming) As Brockington, myself and others have argued elsewhere, little is actually known about the social impacts of protected areas There are very few systematic studies, let alone anything like a global understanding of these processes …

Impacts of different climate stabilisation scenarios on plant species in Europe

Abstract: With the use of goals from the Convention on Biological Diversity we evaluated two climate stabilisation profiles on their merits for conservation of biodiversity, comparing them with a baseline profile. Focusing on plant ecosystems at the pan-European level, we concluded that although a maximum global-mean temperature increase of 2 °C is likely to be met in a 550 ppmv CO 2 -equivalent stabilisation profile, large areas of ecosystems in Europe will be affected. Most of the impacts manifest themselves in northern countries, with a high net increase of plant species, and in Mediterranean countries, with a decrease in the number of plant species and stable area. Other impacts are less robust, given the regional variation in climate results for different climate models.

As the world gets smaller, the chances of invasion grow.

Abstract: While the issue of invasive alien species has important biological components, economic factors such as global trade deserve much greater attention for several reasons. First, virtually all of our planet’s ecosystems have a strong and increasing anthropogenic component that is being fed by increasing globalisation of the economy. Second, people are designing the kinds of ecosystems they find productive or congenial, incorporating species from all parts of the world through quicker and more efficient means of transportation. And third, growing travel and trade, coupled with weakening customs and quarantine controls, mean that people are both intentionally and inadvertently introducing alien species that may become invasive. The great increase in the introduction of alien species that people are importing for economic, aesthetic, accidental, or even psychological reasons is leading to more species invading native ecosystems, with disastrous results: they become invasive alien species (IAS) that have significant deleterious effects on both ecosystems and economies. This paper examines some of the important non-biological dimensions of the IAS problem, including historical, economic, cultural, linguistic, health, sociological, management, legal, military, ethical, and political dimensions. These are addressed in terms of the causes, consequences, and responses to the problem of IAS. These dimensions of IAS are fundamental, and successfully addressing the problem will call for greater collaboration between different economic sectors and among a wide range of disciplines. The Convention on Biological Diversity, the negotiations of the World Trade Organisation, and many other international agreements offer important opportunities for addressing the complex global problems of IAS through improved international cooperation.

Yeast Biodiversity: How Many and How Much?

Abstract: Biodiversity is now a common word. Harper and Hawksworth (1995) tabulated the frequency of use of the term in Biosis and reported its first occurrence in 1988 followed by an increase to approximately 900 by 1994. A similar search of the PubMed database yielded a cumulative total of 1,361 hits by the end of 2003. By comparison, the number of articles using the word “yeast” is approaching 100,000. If the present trend continues, by the year 2016 searches for either word will produce in excess of 36,000 hits for that year only. The task at hand is to make similar predictions about yeast biodiversity. Biodiversity means different things to different individuals. Gaston (1996) reviewed several definitions and concluded that the concept is an abstract expression of all aspects of the variety of life. Recent publications dealing with yeast diversity, had they appeared only 15 years earlier, might have used instead such terms as taxonomy, ecology, or survey (Nout et al. 1997; Buzzini and Martini 2000; Fell et al. 2000; Poliakova et al. 2001; Gadanho et al. 2003; Granchi et al. 2003; Lachance et al. 2003a; Ganga and Martinez 2004; Renker et al. 2004) or even enzymology (Lamb et al. 1999). The Convention on Biological Diversity (Anonymous 1992) defines biological diversity as “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.” As with most things in our society, biodiversity became a tangible reality when it could be assigned a significant economic value. And as with most things in science, the recognition of biodiversity as a worthy research topic is predicated on measurability and the generation of testable hypotheses. The current urgency of the scientific study of biodiversity stems from the realization that only a small fraction (approximately 8%) of the total diversity of life is known (Stork 1999) and that species extinction is occurring at a measurable and increasing rate (Purvis and Hector 2000). Chapter 1

Balancing Access and Benefit Sharing and Legal Protection of Innovations From Bioprospecting: Impacts on Conservation of Biodiversity

Abstract: Biodiversity conservation, access and benefit sharing (ABS), and protection of intellectual property rights (IPR) linked to biotechnologies are all internationally agreed—but not necessarily compatible—objectives. The Convention on Biological Diversity aims for a balance between the needs and interests of owners of genetic resources and technology owners. Can current proposals for handling existing IPR legislation, such as disclosure of origin and certificates of legal provenance, contribute to finding a balance between the interests? Will the growing concern for legitimacy in international transactions with genetic resources be helpful to countries providing genetic resources for technological innovation or are the benefits too few? The article concludes that the success of establishing a multilateral system for access and benefit sharing still depends on compatible legislation in user and provider countries to counterbalance strengthened patent protection systems worldwide. Moreover, it is necessary to ...

Biodiversity research still grounded

Abstract: Last week, the United States designated nearly 140,000 square miles of the Pacific Ocean northwest of Hawaii as the largest protected marine reserve in the world. This is good news, considering that earlier this year, 4000 delegates left the international Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (held in March 2006 in Brazil) with mixed feelings. Portrayal of the conference as successful by the Executive Secretary was in stark contrast to the frustration expressed by environmentalist groups about the failure to progress toward creating large marine protected areas. Paradoxically, the fact that the oceans are the patrimony of all nations creates a legislation gap that is the major obstacle to increasing the percent of protected ocean to the 10% targeted by the convention. This obstacle is augmented by a lack of awareness by legislators and the general public about the role, status, and prospects of biological diversity in oceans relative to the land. Until a better understanding of the diversity of and threats to life in the oceans is achieved, there will be no progress in protecting marine biodiversity. The vast richness of marine biodiversity remains to be discovered, particularly in remote habitats such as the deep ocean. There is a widespread misconception that extinction in the ocean is unlikely because of its huge biogeographical ranges and high connectivity of habitat. But recent surveys and molecular analyses of ocean samples have revealed marine invertebrates with biogeographical ranges as small as 4 km. Specialized communities in deep-sea habitats, such as hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, are isolated across thousands of kilometers. Marine diversity is much more extensive and vulnerable than previously thought. Moreover, much of this diversity is microbial and therefore generally unappealing to society. Indeed, more charismatic animals and plants receive most of the conservationists' attention. Scientific research must unveil the importance of ocean life diversity, test for declines in important taxa and ecosystems, elucidate the causes of these declines, and provide remedial options to change these perception biases. ![Figure][1] Although research on biodiversity has increased, these efforts are dominated by studies on land. Between 1987 and 2004, only 9.8% of published research dealt with marine biodiversity. This severe imbalance percolates through international programs. For instance, only about 10% of the First Open Science Conference of the Diversitas Programme (November 2005 in Mexico) that dealt with biodiversity science addressed marine biodiversity. This disproportionally small research effort on marine biodiversity is in sharp contrast to the large genomic diversity in the oceans as compared to that on land. Most branches of the evolutionary tree of life thrive in the oceans, whereas most terrestrial species are contained within only two branches, a result of the extended history of life in the oceans (3500 million years). The genomic richness of the ocean is an untapped resource for biotechnology, pharmacy, and food. The number of marine species brought into aquaculture exceeds, after only 30 years of development, the number of animal species domesticated over 10,000 years of husbandry on land. Realizing these opportunities requires progress to improve our present knowledge about sustainably managing marine resources. The oceans have lost much of their fish biomass and megafauna to hunting, and key coastal habitats are lost globally at rates 2 to 10 times faster than those in tropical forests [also see the Report by Lotze et al. in this issue (p. [1806][2])]. Anthropogenic inputs to the ocean are causing hypoxia and widespread deterioration of water quality, and anthropogenic CO2 emissions are causing ocean acidification, which is emerging as a global threat to calcifying marine organisms. The concept of protected areas that emerged from studies of life on land cannot be readily extrapolated to the ocean. Until last week, the total protected marine area was 10 times smaller than that on land, and most marine protected areas are too small to be effective. Mounting evidence indicates that marine food webs are connected across oceanic scales, but the forces driving these connections are poorly understood. We must improve our understanding of how the global ocean ecosystem works in order to design networks of protected areas that effectively preserve biodiversity. Indeed, as Mora et al. point out in this issue (p. [1750][3]), the present design of some marine protected areas may not be optimal. Further promoting marine biodiversity research requires a larger scientific community and more resources than currently exist. This can be achieved through increased international cooperative efforts and networking. We must do this before we face a future depleted of marine resources. [1]: pending:yes [2]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1128035 [3]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1125295

Sharing the benefits of genetic resources: from biodiversity to human genetics.

Abstract: Benefit sharing aims to achieve an equitable exchange between the granting of access to a genetic resource and the provision of compensation. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, is the only international legal instrument setting out obligations for sharing the benefits derived from the use of biodiversity. The CBD excludes human genetic resources from its scope, however, this article considers whether it should be expanded to include those resources, so as to enable research subjects to claim a share of the benefits to be negotiated on a case-by-case basis. Our conclusion on this question is: 'No, the CBD should not be expanded to include human genetic resources.' There are essential differences between human and non-human genetic resources, and, in the context of research on humans, an essentially fair exchange model is already available between the health care industry and research subjects. Those who contribute to research should receive benefits in the form of accessible new health care products and services, suitable for local health needs and linked to economic prosperity (e.g. jobs). When this exchange model does not apply, as is often the case in developing countries, individually negotiated benefit sharing agreements between researchers and research subjects should not be used as 'window dressing'. Instead, national governments should focus their finances on the best economic investment they could make; the investment in population health and health research as outlined by the World Health Organization's Commission on Macroeconomics and Health; whilst international barriers to such spending need to be removed.

Securing Economic Benefits and Promoting Conservation through Bioprospecting

Abstract: Bioprospecting has frequently been cited as a sustainable use of biodiversity. Nevertheless, the level of bioprospecting in biodiversity-rich tropical regions falls below its potential, with the result that bioprospecting has produced only limited economic benefits. We present a bioprospecting program that, in addition to promoting drug discovery, provides economic benefits to and promotes conservation in Panama through the sustainable use of biodiversity. The program was initiated using insights from 20 years of nonapplied ecological research to enhance the likelihood of finding treatments for human disease. Samples are not sent abroad; rather, most of the research is carried out in Panamanian laboratories. Panama has received immediate benefits for the use of its biodiversity in the form of research funding derived from sources outside Panama, training for young Panamanian scientists, and enhanced laboratory infrastructure. Over the long term, discoveries derived from bioprospecting may help to establish research-based industries in Panama.

Wildlife conservation through people-centred approaches to natural resource management programmes and the control of wildlife exploitation

Abstract: While the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) introduced a new and progressive outlook on conservation, the South African government has failed to produce a comprehensive legal body of legislation to give effect to its varied obligations Inconsistency and incompleteness of regulations governing wildlife conservation in conjunction with the failure to implement objectives to conserve wildlife through restricted exploitation with the political, social and economic motives of community conservation must be seen as major contributions to failed conservation goals This paper analyses post-apartheid conservation laws and policies and argues that current plans for people-centred approaches to natural resource management programmes have been unsuccessful in operationalizing policy goals of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development into transparent plans for implementation In fact, legal instruments and implementation plans seem to focus on the benefit-sharing components of community

Bioprospecting in Antarctica: the search for a policy regime

Abstract: This paper aims to elucidate the important economic and political aspects of an extremely complex policy issue involving biological prospecting (bioprospecting) in Antarctica. In addressing this rapidly growing global industry, which searches for commercially valuable biological and genetic resources in a world of biological diversity, it becomes obvious that a critical interface exists between Antarctica and the intertwined bioprospecting policies brought forth during recent decades by two treaties, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The analytical framework of the paper builds upon the economic concept of public goods within a political framework of international treaties and law. The concept of a national public good, associated with the sovereignty of a state (nation) over its biological and genetic resources, is the basis of such policy under the Biological Diversity Treaty. In practice, this jurisdiction applies both to the land area of a state and to the exclusive economic zone of a coastal state. The Law of the Sea Treaty, on the other hand, provides both a national public good connotation to exclusive economic zones while creating a global public good connotation for deep seabed mineral resources, with a related potential application to bioprospecting in the deep seabed. While the Antarctic Treaty System possesses several institutions that could be adapted to a bioprospecting policy regime, no such regime has been established up to the present. The paper concludes with a consideration of the critical question: is bioprospecting in Antarctica a national or global public good? While logic would appear to lead one toward the ‘global’ answer, multinational economic and political realities in today's world suggest that either a national public good approach, or a largely unregulated open access approach, is more likely to prevail.

European plant intellectual property.

Abstract: This authoritative new work analyses European plant intellectual property rights. Whilst the focus of the work is on Europe, and in particular the European Patent Convention, the Council Regulation on Community Plant Variety Rights and the EU Directive on the Legal Protection of Biotechnological Inventions, these provisions are discussed within the context of international legislation, including the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) and the Convention on Biological Diversity. It is the first book to look at the impact of plant intellectual property rights on the European plant breeding industry and assess whether recent developments, such as the Novartis decision, will assist plant breeders, from all sectors of plant breeding activities, in the production of new plant products. In addition to a thorough discussion of the legislation, the book includes unique empirical research results obtained by the authors as part of a two-year research project funded by the European Union, which surveyed attitudes towards, and use of, plant intellectual property rights within the European plant breeding community.

Is the cosmopolitan model still valid for deep-sea podocopid ostracods?

Abstract: Despite the increasing recognition of a global shortage of taxonomists (the ‘taxonomic impediment’; see the Governments Convention on Biological Diversity, Darwin Declaration 1998) and the impact this will have on our ability to scientifically assess loss of biodiversity in the context of contemporary global change, there has been little indication (accepting specific funding initiatives such as ‘SINTHESYS’ in Europe and ‘PEET’ in America) as to how young scientists might be encouraged to undertake training in that field, or what educational approach would be appropriate to train taxonomists. There is also clear evidence from the literature that many recognised protocols in terms of the methodology of taxonomy have been eschewed by numerous practitioners, such that problems associated with synonymy and homeomorphy must significantly impact on quantitative assessments of biodiversity in many groups of plants and animals. We use deep-sea podocopid ostracods (Crustacea) to illustrate how less than rigorous taxonomic practice not only leads to confusion with respect to definitions of individual taxa, but also affects on the total number of species and their inferred ecology, distribution and geological record. Descriptions of two new species from the Angola Basin, southern Atlantic Ocean (Pseudobosquetina semireticulata n. sp. andPseudobosquetina nobilis n. sp.) illustrate the level of historical enquiry we consider mandatory to clearly establish definitions for each taxon. A focus on such detail, although time consuming, in our view establishes an important, almost personal historical context for the subject, few other areas of science offer such continuity. Concerns for biodiversity give taxonomy its relevance, historical linkages and strands give that subject its life.

Labelling Genetically Modified Food: The Right to Know

Abstract: Genetically modified (‘bio-engineered’ or ‘transgenic’) food has been at the centre of a transatlantic legal controversy for well over a decade – with the EU insisting on mandatory information disclosure to consumers and the USA resisting it. This article reviews recent developments in three global institutions dealing with the issue: the Dispute Settlement Body of the World Trade Organization (the 2006 Biotech Products Panel Report); the Biosafety Protocol of the Convention on Biological Diversity (the 2006 Curitiba Rules); and the Codex Alimentarius (the 2006 session of the Committee on Food Labelling). The focus of attention appears to be shifting, from initial concerns over risk communication towards a debate over democratic governance: ‘right-to-know’ versus ‘need-to-know’.

Collective Action in Plant Genetic Resources Management: Gendered Rules of Reputation, Trust and Reciprocity in Kerala, India

Abstract: "Collective action aims at the joint management of common pool resources. Agrobiodiversity at the community level is conceptualized as a collective resource requiring the management of varieties, species and their interrelations within a farming-system. In the rice dominated agriculture in the uplands of Kerala, India, few community groups continue maintaining and thus conserving their high diversity in landraces. Faced with the challenges of devastating prices for rice, their traditional system of collective action to exchange seed material and knowledge is endangered. A new institutional mechanism to manage biodiversity is the People's Biodiversity Register, a mandatory documentation procedure to enable cost and benefit sharing under the Convention on Biological Diversity. The comparative analysis of these contrasting cases of an indigenous and an administered effort is concerned with the importance of the analytical category of gender for the rules structuring the actions of the groups. Gender is perceived as an institution, constructing regulations of access and conduct for its members, shaping the room to maneuver. Do the core elements constituting collective action, namely reputation, trust and reciprocity imply different consequences for men and women? Do the rules structuring group mobilization imply different consequences for men and women in the same given context and regarding the management of the same resource? Where do we observe differences and to which effect? Since action resources are very much determined by the existing construction of gender, the question is how does collective action enlarge or inhibit the choices of men and women. Based on 2005 empirical data, the paper analyzes the tribal community of Kurichyas and the People's Biodiversity Register with special emphasis on the analytical category of gender concerning the core elements trust, reciprocity and reputation of collective action." Author's Abstract

Biodiversity Policy Making in Costa Rica: Pursuing Indigenous and Peasant Rights

Abstract: Costa Rica's Biodiversity Law of 1998 is perhaps the most comprehensive legislation implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity. It includes provisions to better protect the intellectual property rights of rural communities regarding uses they have developed for natural resources and plants and animals they have bred. This article addresses how groups representing these peoples—the National Indigenous Board and National Peasant Board—obtained these provisions despite opposition from traditionally more powerful scientific and business communities. Data were collected on the formulation of the Biodiversity Law through qualitative techniques, including intensive interviews and archival research. It was found that fortuitous political conditions, or political opportunity structures, were crucial to the success of organizations representing rural communities. These supports included better-resourced allies, favorable international legal obligations and public opinion, and existing law that could be bui...

Payments for environmental services - A solution for biodiversity conservation?

Abstract: 2 Resume 2 Introduction 4 Conceptual approach 4 Taking stock of practical experiences 7 Main types of valorized environmental services 7 Watershed services 7 Carbon sequestration 8 Biodiversity conservation 8 Landscape beauty 8 Main focus of PES schemes 8 Types of environmental service markets 10 Public payment schemes 10 Open trading under regulatory cap or floor 10 Self-organized private deals 10 Eco-labeling 10 Economic, ecological and social considerations of PES 11 Economic considerations 11 Ecological considerations 12 Social considerations 12 Tentative conclusions 13 References 16 Payments for environmental services–a solution for biodiversity conservation? S. Wertz-Kanounnikoff Iddri – Idees pour le debat N° 12/2006. 4 Introduction Although environmental services (ES) are essential for human wellbeing and all life on earth, they deteriorate at an alarming rate: according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), nearly two-thirds of the world’s environmental services are currently under threat. Environmental services are hereby understood as the benefits humans obtain from ecosystems including carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation or watershed protection. This perception differs from the OECD employment of the term which refers to wastewater management services, solid-waste management services, sanitation and similar services and other environmental services (OECD 2005). In recent years, the recognition of environmental services and their value has led to efforts to internalize environmental services through direct payments for environmental services (PES). From an economic perspective, the loss of ES is explained by the fact that most of these services present externalities or public goods to which, as long as provided for free, their owners will not give much attention when making land use decisions. The idea of PES consists therefore of external ES beneficiaries making direct, contractual and conditional payments to local landholders and users in return for adopting practices that secure ecosystem conservation and restoration and thus the provision of ES (Wunder 2005). In this way land users are expected to receive a direct incentive to include ES in their land use decisions, ideally resulting in more socially optimal land uses than would occur in the absence of such payments. The concept of PES has experienced growing interest over the last years in both developed and developing countries. A wide range of theoretical and practical work is currently being pursued around the world and many different organizations are involved. These include research organizations, think tanks, non-governmental organization, government agencies and private companies. Most initiatives so far have been conducted in developed countries, notably the United States and Australia, but increasingly more activities are also emerging in developing countries such as in Costa Rica, Mexico or Kenya just to name some examples. Moreover, interest is also emerging to further explore the potential of PES to become an international mechanism for biodiversity finance. Specifically, the 8th Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) held in Curitiba in March 2006 identifies as one of its focal areas the “maintenance of goods and services from biodiversity to support human wellbeing” and the need to explore innovative financial mechanisms for the implementation of the CBD and its 2010 biodiversity targets (CBD-8th COP 2006). In September 2006, an international experts’ workshop organized by UN Environment Program (UNEP) and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), in close collaboration with the CBD Secretariat, started to explore the potentials for international payments for biodiversity conservation services. In light of these developments, this note reviews the current debate on PES for biodiversity conservation by focusing specifically on its economic, social and ecological impacts. The term “conservation” is hereby understood as “the management of human use of the biosphere so that is may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations” (Markandya et al. 2001). Based on a literature review, this note starts with a brief presentation of the concept before dealing with current practical approaches. It continues with a discussion on economic, ecological, and social considerations of PES, and ends with some tentative conclusions.

Conservation biology, genetically modified organisms, and the biosafety protocol.

Abstract: Concerns have been raised regarding the potential adverse effects on biological diversity of the use of living modified organisms (LMOs, which are commonly known by similar terms such as genetically modified organisms). At the international level these concerns are addressed in part by an agreement known as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and include potential toxic effects of insect-resistant crops on nontarget organisms and potential ecological effects of gene flow from modified crops, fish, microorganisms, or insects to wild species or counterparts. We reviewed the protocol's main provisions, including those dealing with risk assessment and risk management, decision making on imports, documentation accompanying shipments, and liability resulting from damages caused by LMOs. A medium-term program of work has been adopted by the parties, which includes the potential contribution of conservation biologists to delivering capacity building, developing risk assessment guidance, evaluating mechanisms of potential ecological damages from LMOs, and other issues. Conservation biologists and other experts have opportunities to influence the negotiations and implementation of the protocol by providing inputs at meetings, offering expertise to governments and organizations, and participating in or developing relevant projects and initiatives. Involvement of conservation biologists in the implementation and further development of the protocol would contribute to its effectiveness.

Analysis of Options for Implementing Disclosure of Origin Requirements in Intellectual Property Applications - A Contribution to UNCTAD's Response to the Invitation of the Seventh Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity

Abstract: Comprehensive analysis prepared for UNCTAD and the Convention on Biological Diversity regarding issues in developing a multilateral treaty to require disclosures of the origin of genetic resources and/or associated traditional knowledge (and related information) in patent and other intellectual property applications.

Inland hypersaline lakes and the brine shrimp Artemia as simple models for biodiversity analysis at the population level.

Abstract: Biodiversity can be measured at different hierarchical levels, from genetic diversity within species to diversity of ecosystems, though policy-makers tend to use species richness. The 2010 goal of reducing biodiversity loss, agreed by the subscribers to the Convention on Biological Diversity, requires simple and reliable protocols to evaluate biodiversity at any level in a given ecosystem. Stakeholders, particularly policy makers, need to understand how ecosystem components interact to produce social and economic benefits on the long run, whilst scientists are expected to fulfil this demand by testing and modelling ideally simple (low diversity) ecosystems, and by monitoring key species. This work emphasizes the unique opportunity offered by inland, isolated salt lakes and the brine shrimp Artemia, an example of biodiversity contained at the intra-specific level, as simple models to understand and monitor biodiversity, as well as to assess its predicted positive association with ecosystem stability. In addition to having well identified species and strains and even clones, that allow to test reproductive effects (sexual versus asexual), Artemia benefits from the possibility to set up experimental testing at both laboratory scale and outdoor pond systems, for which a comprehensive cyst bank with sufficient amount of samples from all over the world is available.

In situ agrobiodiversity conservation: Examples from Nepal, Turkey and Switzerland in the first decade of the convention on Biological Diversity

Abstract: Applications of in situ agrobiodiversity conservation practices within agricultural production systems have the potential to reduce the risks of agricultural modernisation and enhance sustainable development. The aims and approaches for in situ conservation differ according to the requirements of communities and nations. Approaches to in situ conservation in the decade after the Convention of Biological Diversity are reviewed within the contexts of marginal agricultural systems in Nepal, Turkey and Switzerland. Numerous approaches are currently utilised, including: the informal de facto retention of agrobiodiversity; the provision of state assistance; the marketing of agrobiodiversity products; the use of technological innovations to develop local diversity; the establishment of conservation reserves; community assistance programmes and the raising of awareness of the issue amongst all sectors of societies. Emerging complementary in situ approaches applicable in the rural margins suggest a framew...

Systems or species? Approaches to conservation for the 21st century

Abstract: One of the hot debates in the conservation community is whether to focus on individual species (for example, through species recovery plans, or lists of threatened species) or on systems approaches (such as the ecosystem approach advocated by the Convention on Biological Diversity). This paper will discuss some of the various options, before reaching a conclusion that both approaches are valid and mutually reinforcing, and that the dichotomy is a false one. Perhaps more importantly, no conservation investment is likely to be effective if economic, social, and political factors are driving in the opposite direction. Instead, we need multiple approaches that build a stronger political constituency, new ways of providing knowledge for decisions, better ways of mobilizing information and dynamic approaches that enable us to adapt to changing conditions, and new ways to generate funding for conservation.

Access to plant genetic resources for genomic research for the poor: from global policies to target-oriented rules

Abstract: Applied genetics combined with practical plant breeding is a powerful tool in agricultural development and for food security. The Green Revolution spurred the world's potential to meet its food, feed and fibre needs at a time when vast regions were notoriously food-insecure. Subsequent adaptations of such strategies, from the late 1980s onwards, in order to develop new plant varieties in a more participatory way, have strengthened the focus on applying technology to farmers' diverse needs, feeding research results into a variety of seed systems. During these developments, there were no major legal impediments to the acquisition of either local or formal knowledge or of the building blocks of plant breeding: genetic resources. The emergence of molecular biology in plant science is creating a wealth of opportunities, both to understand better the limitations of crop production and to use a much wider array of genetic diversity in crop improvement. This ‘Gene Revolution’ needs to incorporate the lessons from the Green Revolution in order to reach its target groups. However, the policy environment has changed. Access to technologies is complicated by the spread of private rights (intellectual property rights), and access to genetic resources by new national access laws. Policies on access to genetic resources have changed from the concept of the ‘Heritage of Mankind’ for use for the benefit of all mankind to ‘National Sovereignty’, based on the Convention on Biological Diversity, for negotiated benefit-sharing between a provider and a user. The Generation Challenge Programme intends to use genomic techniques to identify and use characteristics that are of value to the resource-poor, and is looking for ways to promote freedom-to-operate for plant breeding technologies and materials. Biodiversity provides the basis for the effective use of these genomic techniques. National access regulations usually apply to all biodiversity indiscriminately and may cause obstacles or delays in the use of genetic resources in agriculture. Different policies are being developed in different regions. Some emphasize benefit-sharing, and limit access in order to implement this (the ‘African Model Law’), while others, in recognition of countries' interdependence, provide for facilitated access to all genetic resources under the jurisdiction of countries in the region (the Nordic Region). There are good reasons why the use of agricultural biodiversity needs to be regulated differently from industrial uses of biodiversity. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which entered into force in 2004, provides for facilitated access to agricultural genetic resources, at least for the crops that are included in the Treaty's ‘Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-sharing’. Ratification of the Treaty is proceeding apace, and negotiations have entered a critical stage in the development of practical instruments for its implementation. Although the scope of the Treaty is all plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, there are important crops that are not covered by its Multilateral System. Humanitarian licences are being used to provide access for the poor to protected technologies: countries may need to create such a general humanitarian access regime, to ensure the poor have the access they need to agricultural genetic resources.

International Cooperation against the Hegemon: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

Abstract: America’s retreat from environmental leadership in the early 1990s marks a turning point in environmental diplomacy. Ever since the United States took a backseat role at the 1992 Rio ‘Earth Summit’, it has repeatedly opposed new environmental treaties that contain binding rules and obligations. Given America’s pre-eminent position in the international political economy the unilateral turn in US foreign policy has come as a blow to ongoing efforts to strengthen global environmental governance. Yet, international environmental policy-making has continued in areas where the US refuses to take on new international commitments as was the case with the Kyoto Protocol, which has entered into force in 2005 despite US withdrawal from the agreement. This chapter investigates another area of international contention, which pitted the US and a small group of agricultural export countries against the large majority of European and developing countries wishing to create internationally binding rules: the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity, the world’s first international treaty regulating the transboundary movement of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).