Topic
Cost effectiveness
About: Cost effectiveness is a research topic. Over the lifetime, 69775 publications have been published within this topic receiving 1531477 citations.
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TL;DR: No method is a panacea, but a combination of techniques can help address the lack of data on illegal activity, and conservation would benefit from more research focused on methods comparisons that include cost effectiveness, time efficiency, and statistical rigor; unique applications of the eight techniques currently in use; and testing of new methods.
Abstract: Illegal use of natural resources is a threat to biodiversity globally, but research on illegal activities has methodological challenges. We examined 100 studies that empirically identify targeted resources, techniques used to procure resources illegally, locations of illegal activities, characteristics of typical violators, incentives driving illegal use of resources, magnitude of the problem of illegal use (e.g., quantities used), or frequency of illegal activity. We based our evaluation of the methods used in these studies on their ability to provide these empirical data, relative labor demands, training and technology requirements, and levels of uncontrollable bias. We evaluated eight different methods: law-enforcement records, indirect observation, self-reporting, direct observation, direct questioning, randomized response technique (a survey method designed to improve accuracy of responses to sensitive questions), forensics, and modeling. Different situations favored different methods, each with distinct advantages and limitations. Six context-specific factors-location of resource use (in situ vs. ex situ), budget, technology and training capacity, ease of detection of illegal activity, scope of illegal activity (limited vs. widespread), and researchers' willingness to accept bias in results-help narrow the choice of methods. Several methodological concerns applied to any study of illegal resource use: regular monitoring can detect trends; modeling can incorporate sampling error and data uncertainties; researchers must manage levels of bias that vary between methods; triangulation of results from multiple methods can improve accuracy. No method is a panacea, but a combination of techniques can help address the lack of data on illegal activity. Researchers empirically compared results from different methods in only four studies, and no one has compared more than two methods simultaneously. Conservation would benefit from more research focused on: methods comparisons that include cost effectiveness, time efficiency, and statistical rigor; unique applications of the eight techniques currently in use; and testing of new methods.
272 citations
TL;DR: In this study, both a low and a high ABI were associated with elevated CVD risk in persons free of known CVD, independent of standard and novel risk factors, and independent of other measures of subclinical CVD.
272 citations
TL;DR: Effective internal technology transfer—the implementation of technical systems developed and disseminated to operational subunits within a single organization—depends not only upon the cost, but also upon the quality of the systems implemented.
Abstract: Effective internal technology transfer—the implementation of technical systems developed and disseminated to operational subunits within a single organization—depends not only upon the cost, qualit...
272 citations
TL;DR: Reflex HPV DNA testing provides the same or greater life expectancy benefits and is more cost-effective than other management strategies for women diagnosed as having ASC-US.
Abstract: ContextEvery year approximately 2 million US women are diagnosed as having
a cervical cytological result of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance
(ASC-US).ObjectiveTo determine the most efficient and cost-effective management strategy
for women in the United States diagnosed as having ASC-US.Design and SettingCost-effectiveness analysis of data from clinical trials, prospective
studies, and other published literature. A computer-based model was used to
compare 4 management strategies for a cytological result of ASC-US: immediate
colposcopy; human papillomavirus (HPV) triage, which includes colposcopy if
high-risk HPV types are detected; repeat cytology, which includes follow-up
cytology at 6 and 12 months and referral for colposcopy if a repeat abnormal
result occurs; and reclassifying ASC-US as normal in which a cytological result
of ASC-US is ignored. Reflex HPV DNA testing uses either residual liquid-based
cytological specimens or samples co-collected at the time of the initial screening
for conventional cytology. Another method, referred to as the 2-visit HPV
DNA triage, requires a woman with an ASC-US result to return within 1 month
to provide another speciman sample.Main Outcome MeasuresYears of life saved (YLS), quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), and
incremental cost-effectiveness ratios.ResultsThe least costly strategy for biennial screening was to reclassify ASC-US
as normal, resulting in a reduction in total cancer incidence of 75% for conventional
cytology and 84% for liquid-based cytology compared with no screening. The
next least costly strategy was HPV DNA testing resulting in a reduction in
total cancer incidence of 86% for conventional cytology and 90% for liquid-based
cytology, followed by immediate colposcopy with a reduction of 87% and 91%,
respectively. Compared with reflex HPV DNA testing, a strategy of repeat cervical
cytology or delayed HPV testing costs more but is less effective. When all
strategies were compared simultaneously, varying frequency and type of cytological
test, biennial (vs every 3 years) liquid-based cytology with reflex HPV testing
had a cost of $174 200 per YLS. In a similar comparison, liquid-based
cytology with reflex HPV testing conducted every 3 years (vs every 5 years)
had a cost of $59 600 per YLS and was more effective and less costly
than a strategy of conventional cytology incorporating repeat cytology or
immediate colposcopy conducted biennially.ConclusionReflex HPV DNA testing provides the same or greater life expectancy
benefits and is more cost-effective than other management strategies for women
diagnosed as having ASC-US.
272 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of dropout from distance education is proposed, which includes components for background characteristics, goal commitment, academic and social integration, and a cost/benefit analysis.
Abstract: A model of drop-out from distance education is proposed. The longitudinal model is developed from Tinto's model. It includes components for background characteristics, goal commitment, academic and social integration, and a cost/benefit analysis. Issues inherent in testing the model are discussed.
271 citations