Showing papers on "Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector routing published in 2002"

Ariadne: a secure on-demand routing protocol for ad hoc networks

Abstract: An ad hoc network is a group of wireless mobile computers (or nodes), in which individual nodes cooperate by forwarding packets for each other to allow nodes to communicate beyond direct wireless transmission range. Prior research in ad hoc networking has generally studied the routing problem in a non-adversarial setting, assuming a trusted environment. In this paper, we present attacks against routing in ad hoc networks, and we present the design and performance evaluation of a new secure on-demand ad hoc network routing protocol, called Ariadne. Ariadne prevents attackers or compromised nodes from tampering with uncompromised routes consisting of uncompromised nodes, and also prevents a large number of types of Denial-of-Service attacks. In addition, Ariadne is efficient, using only highly efficient symmetric cryptographic primitives.

Energy aware routing for low energy ad hoc sensor networks

Abstract: The recent interest in sensor networks has led to a number of routing schemes that use the limited resources available at sensor nodes more efficiently. These schemes typically try to find the minimum energy path to optimize energy usage at a node. In this paper we take the view that always using lowest energy paths may not be optimal from the point of view of network lifetime and long-term connectivity. To optimize these measures, we propose a new scheme called energy aware routing that uses sub-optimal paths occasionally to provide substantial gains. Simulation results are also presented that show increase in network lifetimes of up to 40% over comparable schemes like directed diffusion routing. Nodes also burn energy in a more equitable way across the network ensuring a more graceful degradation of service with time.

Performance Analysis of the CONFIDANT Protocol: Cooperation Of Nodes - Fairness In Dynamic Ad-hoc NeTworks

Abstract: Mobile ad-hoc networking works properly only if the participating nodes cooperate in routing and forwarding. However, it may be advantageous for individual nodes not to cooperate. We propose a protocol, called CONFIDANT, for making misbehavior unattractive; it is based on selective altruism and utilitarianism. It aims at detecting and isolating misbehaving nodes, thus making it unattractive to deny cooperation. Trust relationships and routing decisions are based on experienced, observed, or reported routing and forwarding behavior of other nodes. The detailed implementation of CONFIDANT in this paper assumes that the network layer is based on the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol. We present a performance analysis of DSR fortified by CONFIDANT and compare it to regular defenseless DSR. It shows that a network with CONFIDANT and up to 60% of misbehaving nodes behaves almost as well as a benign network, in sharp contrast to a defenseless network. All simulations have been implemented and performed in GloMoSim.

SEAD: secure efficient distance vector routing for mobile wireless ad hoc networks

Abstract: An ad hoc network is a collection of wireless computers (nodes), communicating among themselves over possibly multihop paths, without the help of any infrastructure such as base stations or access points. Although many previous ad hoc network routing protocols have been based in part on distance vector approaches, they have generally assumed a trusted environment. We design and evaluate the Secure Efficient Ad hoc Distance vector routing protocol (SEAD), a secure ad hoc network routing protocol based on the design of the Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector routing protocol (DSDV). In order to support use with nodes of limited CPU processing capability, and to guard against denial-of-service (DoS) attacks in which an attacker attempts to cause other nodes to consume excess network bandwidth or processing time, we use efficient one-way hash functions and do not use asymmetric cryptographic operations in the protocol. SEAD performs well over the range of scenarios we tested, and is robust against multiple uncoordinated attackers creating incorrect routing state in any other node, even in spite of any active attackers or compromised nodes in the network.

Routing security in wireless ad hoc networks

Abstract: A mobile ad hoc network consists of a collection of wireless mobile nodes that are capable of communicating with each other without the use of a network infrastructure or any centralized administration. MANET is an emerging research area with practical applications. However, wireless MANET is particularly vulnerable due to its fundamental characteristics, such as open medium, dynamic topology, distributed cooperation, and constrained capability. Routing plays an important role in the security of the entire network. In general, routing security in wireless MANETs appears to be a problem that is not trivial to solve. In this article we study the routing security issues of MANETs, and analyze in detail one type of attack-the "black hole" problem-that can easily be employed against the MANETs. We also propose a solution for the black hole problem for ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing protocol.

Scalable routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks

Abstract: The growing interest in mobile ad hoc network techniques has resulted in many routing protocol proposals. Scalability issues in ad hoc networks are attracting increasing attention these days. We survey the routing protocols that address scalability. The routing protocols included in the survey fall into three categories: flat routing protocols; hierarchical routing approaches; GPS augmented geographical routing schemes. The article compares the scalability properties and operational features of the protocols and discusses challenges in future routing protocol designs.

Scalable Information-Driven Sensor Querying and Routing for Ad Hoc Heterogeneous Sensor Networks

Abstract: This paper describes two novel techniques, information-driven sensor querying IDSQ and constrained anisotropic diffusion routing CADR, for energy-efficient data querying and routing in ad hoc sensor networks for a range of collaborative signal processing tasks. The key idea is to introduce an information utility measure to select which sensors to query and to dynamically guide data routing. This allows us to maximize information gain while minimizing detection latency and bandwidth consumption for tasks such as localization and tracking. Our simulation results have demonstrated that the information-driven querying and routing techniques are more energy efficient, have lower detection latency, and provide anytime algorithms to mitigate risks of link/node failures.

Position-based routing in ad hoc networks

Abstract: The availability of small, inexpensive low-power GPS receivers and techniques for finding relative coordinates based on signal strengths, and the need for the design of power-efficient and scalable networks provided justification for applying position-based routing methods in ad hoc networks. A number of such algorithms were developed previously. This tutorial will concentrate on schemes that are loop-free, localized, and follow a single-path strategy, which are desirable characteristics for scalable routing protocols. Routing protocols have two modes: greedy mode (when the forwarding node is able to advance the message toward the destination) and recovery mode (applied until return to greedy mode is possible). We discuss them separately. Methods also differ in metrics used (hop count, power, cost, congestion, etc.), and in past traffic memorization at nodes (memoryless or memorizing past traffic). Salient properties to be emphasized in this review are guaranteed delivery, scalability, and robustness.

ARA-the ant-colony based routing algorithm for MANETs

Abstract: A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is a collection of mobile nodes which communicate over radio. These kind of networks are very flexible, thus they do not require any existing infrastructure or central administration. Therefore, mobile ad-hoc networks are suitable for temporary communication links. The biggest challenge in this kind of networks is to find a path between the communication end points, what is aggravated through the node mobility. In this paper we present a new on-demand routing algorithm for mobile, multi-hop ad-hoc networks. The protocol is based on swarm intelligence and especially on the ant colony based meta heuristic. These approaches try to map the solution capability of swarms to mathematical and engineering problems. The introduced routing protocol is highly adaptive, efficient and scalable. The main goal in the design of the protocol was to reduce the overhead for routing. We refer to the protocol as the ant-colony-based routing algorithm (ARA).

Modelling Data-Centric Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks

Abstract: Sensor networks differ from traditional net- works in several ways: sensor networks have severe en- ergy constraints, redundant low-rate data, and many-to-one flows. The end-to-end routing schemes that have been pro- posed in the literature for mobile ad-hoc networks are not appropriate under these settings. Data-centric technologies are needed that perform in-network aggregation of data to yield energy-efficient dissemination. In this paper we model data-centric routing and compare its performance with tra- ditional end-to-end routing schemes. We examine the im- pact of source-destination placement and communication network density on the energy costs, delay, and robustness of data aggregation. We show that data-centric routing offers significant performance gains across a wide range of opera- tional scenarios.

GPS-free Positioning in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Abstract: We consider the problem of node positioning in ad hoc networks. We propose a distributed, infrastructure-free positioning algorithm that does not rely on GPS (Global Positioning System). Instead, the algorithm uses the distances between the nodes to build a relative coordinate system in which the node positions are computed in two dimensions. Despite the distance measurement errors and the motion of the nodes, the algorithm provides sufficient location information and accuracy to support basic network functions. Examples of applications where this algorithm can be used include Location Aided Routing [10] and Geodesic Packet Forwarding [2]. Another example are sensor networks, where mobility is less of a problem. The main contribution of this work is to define and compute relative positions of the nodes in an ad hoc network without using GPS. We further explain how the proposed approach can be applied to wide area ad hoc networks.

Secure Routing for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Abstract: The emergence of the Mobile Ad Hoc Networking (MANET) technology advocates self-organized wireless interconnection of communication devices that would either extend or operate in concert with the w ...

An on-demand secure routing protocol resilient to byzantine failures

Abstract: An ad hoc wireless network is an autonomous self-organizing system ofmobile nodes connected by wireless links where nodes not in directrange can communicate via intermediate nodes. A common technique usedin routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks is to establish therouting paths on-demand, as opposed to continually maintaining acomplete routing table. A significant concern in routing is theability to function in the presence of byzantine failures whichinclude nodes that drop, modify, or mis-route packets in an attempt todisrupt the routing service.We propose an on-demand routing protocol for ad hoc wireless networks that provides resilience to byzantine failures caused by individual or colluding nodes. Our adaptive probing technique detects a malicious link after log n faults have occurred, where n is the length of the path. These links are then avoided by multiplicatively increasing their weights and by using an on-demand route discovery protocol that finds a least weight path to the destination.

Nodes bearing grudges: towards routing security, fairness, and robustness in mobile ad hoc networks

Abstract: Devices in mobile ad hoc networks work as network nodes and relay packets originated by other nodes. Mobile ad hoc networks can work properly only if the participating nodes cooperate in routing and forwarding. For individual nodes it might be advantageous not to cooperate. The new routing protocol extensions presented in this paper make it possible to detect and isolate misbehaving nodes, thus making denying cooperation undesirable. In the presented scheme, trust relationships and routing decisions are made based on experienced, observed, or reported routing and forwarding behavior of other nodes. A hybrid scheme of selective altruism and utilitarianism is presented to strengthen mobile ad hoc network protocols in their resistance to security attacks, while aiming at keeping network throughput high. This paper focuses particularly on the network layer using the dynamic source routing (DSR) protocol as an example.

QoS routing for mobile ad hoc networks

Abstract: A quality-of-service (QoS) routing protocol is developed for mobile ad hoc networks. It can establish QoS routes with reserved bandwidth on a per flow basis in a network employing TDMA. An efficient algorithm for calculating the end-to-end bandwidth on a path is developed and used together with the route discovery mechanism of AODV to setup QoS routes. In our simulations the QoS routing protocol produces higher throughput and lower delay than its best-effort counterpart.

Secure ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing

Abstract: This article gives an overview of different approaches to provide security features to routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks (MANET). It also describes Secure AODV (an extension to AODV that provides security features) giving a summary of its operation and talking about future enhancements to the protocol.

Ad hoc on-demand multipath distance vector routing

Abstract: We present AOMDV, an on-demand multipath distance vector protocol for mobile ad hoc networks. AOMDV is based on a prominent on-demand single path protocol called AODV. AOMDV establishes multiple loop-free and link-disjoint paths. Performance comparison of AOMDV with AODV using ns-2 simulations under varying node speeds shows that AOMDV provides a factor of two improvement in delay and about 20% reduction in routing overhead, while having similar packet delivery fraction.

Coping with communication gray zones in IEEE 802.11b based ad hoc networks

Abstract: Our experiments with IEEE 802.11b based wireless ad hoc networks show that neighbor sensing with broadcast messages introduces "communication gray zones": in such zones data messages cannot be exchanged although the HELLO messages indicate neighbor reachability. This leads to a systematic mismatch between the route state and the real world connectivity, resulting in disruptive behavior for multi-media data transfer over ad hoc routing protocols. Concentrating on AODV we explore this issue and evaluate three different techniques to overcome the gray zone problem. We present quantitative measurements of these improvements and discuss the consequences for ad hoc routing protocols and their implementations.

Asymptotically optimal geometric mobile ad-hoc routing

Abstract: In this paper we present AFR, a new geometric mobile ad-hoc routing algorithm The algorithm is completely distributed; nodes need to communicate only with direct neighbors in their transmission range We show that if a best route has cost c, AFR finds a route and terminates with cost O(c2) in the worst case AFR is the first algorithm with cost bounded by a function of the optimal route We also give a tight lower bound by showing that any geometric routing algorithm has worst-case cost $Ogr;(c2) Thus AFR is asymptotically optimal We give a non-geometric algorithm that also matches the lower bound, but needs some memory at each node This establishes an intriguing trade-off between geometry and memory

Constrained random walks on random graphs: routing algorithms for large scale wireless sensor networks

Abstract: We consider a routing problem in the context of large scale networks with uncontrolled dynamics. A case of uncontrolled dynamics that has been studied extensively is that of mobile nodes, as this is typically the case in cellular and mobile ad-hoc networks. In this paper however we study routing in the presence of a different type of dynamics: nodes do not move, but instead switch between active and inactive states at random times. Our interest in this case is motivated by the behavior of sensor nodes powered by renewable sources, such as solar cells or ambient vibrations. In this paper we formalize the corresponding routing problem as a problem of constructing suitably constrained random walks on random dynamic graphs. We argue that these random walks should be designed so that their resulting invariant distribution achieves a certain load balancing property, and we give simple distributed algorithms to compute the local parameters for the random walks that achieve the sought behavior. A truly novel feature of our formulation is that the algorithms we obtain are able to route messages along all possible routes between a source and a destination node, without performing explicit route discovery/repair computations, and without maintaining explicit state information about available routes at the nodes. To the best of our knowledge, these are the first algorithms that achieve true multipath routing (in a statistical sense), at the complexity of simple stateless operations.

Algebra and algorithms for QoS path computation and hop-by-hop routing in the Internet

Abstract: Prompted by the advent of quality-of-service routing in the Internet, we investigate the properties that path weight functions must have so that hop-by-hop routing is possible and optimal paths can be computed with a generalization of E.W. Dijkstra's algorithm (see Numer. Math., vol.1, p.269-71, 1959). We define an algebra of weights which contains a binary operation, for the composition of link weights into path weights, and an order relation. Isotonicity is the key property of the algebra. It states that the order relation between the weights of any two paths is preserved if both of them are either prefixed or appended by a common, third, path. We show that isotonicity is both necessary and sufficient for a generalized Dijkstra's algorithm to yield optimal paths. Likewise, isotonicity is also both necessary and sufficient for hop-by-hop routing. However, without strict isotonicity, hop-by-hop routing based on optimal paths may produce routing loops. They are prevented if every node computes what we call lexicographic-optimal paths. These paths can be computed with an enhanced Dijkstra's algorithm that has the same complexity as the standard one. Our findings are extended to multipath routing as well. As special cases of the general approach, we conclude that shortest-widest paths can neither be computed with a generalized Dijkstra's algorithm nor can packets be routed hop-by-hop over those paths. In addition, loop-free hop-by-hop routing over widest and widest-shortest paths requires each node to compute lexicographic-optimal paths, in general.

Fixed-alternate routing and wavelength conversion in wavelength-routed optical networks

Abstract: Consider an optical network which employs wavelength-routing crossconnects that enable the establishment of wavelength-division-multiplexed (WDM) connections between node pairs. In such a network, when there is no wavelength conversion, a connection is constrained to be on the same wavelength channel along its route. Alternate routing can improve the blocking performance of such a network by providing multiple possible paths between node pairs. Wavelength conversion can also improve the blocking performance of such a network by allowing a connection to use different wavelengths along its route. This work proposes an approximate analytical model that incorporates alternate routing and sparse wavelength conversion. We perform simulation studies of the relationships between alternate routing and wavelength conversion on three representative network topologies. We demonstrate that alternate routing generally provides significant benefits, and that it is important to design alternate routes between node pairs in an optimized fashion to exploit the connectivity of the network topology. The empirical results also indicate that fixed-alternate routing with a small number of alternate routes asymptotically approaches adaptive routing in blocking performance.

Inferring link weights using end-to-end measurements

Abstract: We describe a novel constraint-based approach to approximate ISP link weights using only end-to-end measurements. Common routing protocols such as OSPF and IS-IS choose least-cost paths using link weights, so inferred weights provide a simple, concise, and useful model of intradomain routing. Our approach extends router-level ISP maps, which include only connectivity, with link weights that are consistent with routing. Our inferred weights agree well with observed routing: while our inferred weights fully characterize the set of shortest paths between 84--99% of the router-pairs, alternative models based on hop count and latency do so for only 47--81% of the pairs.

Power-aware source routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks

Abstract: Ad hoc wireless networks are power constrained since nodes operate with limited battery energy. To maximize the lifetime of these networks (defined by the condition that a fixed percentage of the nodes in the network "die out" due to lack of energy), network-related transactions through each mobile node must be controlled such that the power dissipation rates of all nodes are nearly the same. Assuming that all nodes start with a finite amount of battery capacity and that the energy dissipation per bit of data and control packet transmission or reception is known, this paper presents a new source-initiated (on-demand) routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks that increases the network lifetime. Simulation results show that the proposed power-aware source routing protocol has a higher performance than other source initiated routing protocols in terms of the network lifetime.

MRPC: maximizing network lifetime for reliable routing in wireless environments

Abstract: We propose MRPC, a new power-aware routing algorithm for energy-efficient routing that increases the operational lifetime of multi-hop wireless networks. In contrast to conventional power-aware algorithms, MRPC identifies the capacity of a node not just by its residual battery energy, but also by the expected energy spent in reliably forwarding a packet over a specific link. Such a formulation better captures scenarios where link transmission costs also depend on physical distances between nodes and the link error rates. Using a max-min formulation, MRPC selects the path that has the largest packet capacity at the 'critical' node (the one with the smallest residual packet transmission capacity). We also present CMRPC, a conditional variant of MRPC that switches from minimum energy routing to MRPC only when the packet forwarding capacity of nodes falls below a threshold. Simulation based studies have been used to quantify the performance gains of our algorithms.

Survivable lightpath routing: a new approach to the design of WDM-based networks

Abstract: Network restoration is often done at the electronic layer by rerouting traffic along a redundant path. With wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) as the underlying physical layer, it is possible that both the primary and backup paths traverse the same physical links and would fail simultaneously in the event of a link failure. It is, therefore, critical that lightpaths are routed in such a way that a single link failure would not disconnect the network. We call such a routing survivable and develop algorithms for survivable routing of a logical topology. First, we show that the survivable routing problem is NP-complete. We then prove necessary and sufficient conditions for a routing to be survivable and use these conditions to formulate the problem as an integer linear program (ILP). Due to the excessive run-times of the ILP, we develop simple and effective relaxations for the ILP that significantly reduces the time required for finding survivable routings. We use our new formulation to route various logical topologies over a number of different physical topologies and show that this new approach offers a much greater degree of protection than alternative routing schemes such as shortest path routing and a greedy routing algorithm. Finally, we consider the special case of ring logical topologies for which we are able to find a significantly simplified formulation. We establish conditions on the physical topology for routing logical rings in a survivable manner.

Path set selection in mobile ad hoc networks

Abstract: Topological changes in mobile ad hoc networks frequently render routing paths unusable. Such recurrent path failures have detrimental effects on the network ability to support QoS-driven services. A promising technique for addressing this problem is to use multiple redundant paths between the source and the destination. However while multipath routing algorithms can tolerate network failures well their failure resilience only holds if the paths are selected judiciously. In particular the correlation between the failures of the paths in a redundant path set should be as small as possible. However selecting an optimal path set is an NP-complete problem. Heuristic solutions proposed in the literature are either too complex to be performed in real-time or too ineffective or both. This paper proposes a multipath routing algorithm called Disjoint Pathset Selection Protocol (DPSP) based on a novel heuristic that in nearly linear time on average picks a set of highly reliable paths. The convergence to a highly reliable path set is very fast and the protocol provides flexibility in path selection and routing algorithm. Furthermore DPSP is suitable for real-time execution with nearly no message exchange overhead and with minimal additional storage requirements. This paper presents evidence that multipath routing can mask a substantial number of failures in the network compared to single path routing protocols and that the selection of paths according to DPSP can be beneficial for mobile ad hoc networks since it dramatically reduces the rate of route discoveries.

Implementation experience with MANET routing protocols

Abstract: This paper outlines our experience with the implementation and deployment of two MANET routing protocols on a five node, four hop, network. The work was prompted by the lack of published results concerning the issues associated with the implementation of MANET routing protocols on actual wireless networks, as opposed to results of simulation experiments. We examined implementations of two distance vector MANET routing protocols and found a number of problems with both protocols during the course of our experiments. The most significant was that neither protocol could provide a stable route over any multi-hop network connection. The route discovery process of both protocols is fooled by the transient availability of network links to nodes that were more than one hop away. Packets transmitted over a fading channel cause the routing protocol to conclude incorrectly that there is a new one hop neighbor that could provide a lower metric (hop count) route to even more distant nodes. This can occur even when nodes are stationary, mobility resulted in even less route stability. We implemented a simple signal strength based neighbor selection procedure to test our assertion that fading channels and unreliable network links were the cause of the failure of the routing protocols. The result was that neighbor discovery and the filtering for neighbors with which nodes could communicate reliably enables the creation of reliable multihop routes. Based on our experiences, we outline several recommendations for future work in MANET research.

Heuristic algorithms for multiconstrained quality-of-service routing

Abstract: Multiconstrained quality-of-service (QoS) routing deals with finding routes that satisfy multiple independent QoS constraints. This problem is NP-hard. In this paper, two heuristics, the limited granularity heuristic and the limited path heuristic, are investigated. Both heuristics extend the Bellman-Ford shortest path algorithm and solve general k-constrained QoS routing problems. Analytical and simulation studies are conducted to compare the time/space requirements of the heuristics and the effectiveness of the heuristics in finding paths that satisfy the QoS constraints. The major results of this paper are the following. For an N-nodes and E-edges network with k (a small constant) independent QoS constraints, the limited granularity heuristic must maintain a table of size O(|N|k- 1) in each node to be effective, which results in a time complexity of O (|N|K|E|); while the limited path heuristic can achieve very high performance by maintaining O (|N|2lg(|N|)) entries in each node. These results indicate that the limited path heuristic is relatively insensitive to the number of constraints and is superior to the limited granularity heuristic in solving k-constrained QoS routing problems when k > 3.