Showing papers on "Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector routing published in 2015"

A Survey on Opportunistic Routing in Wireless Communication Networks

Abstract: The great advances made in the wireless technology have enabled the deployment of wireless communication networks in some of the harshest environments such as volcanoes, hurricane-affected regions, and underground mines. In such challenging environments suffering from the lack of infrastructure, traditional routing is not efficient and sometimes not even feasible. Moreover, the exponential growth of the number of wireless connected devices has created the need for a new routing paradigm that could benefit from the potentials offered by these heterogeneous wireless devices. Hence, in order to overcome the traditional routing limitations, and to increase the capacity of current dynamic heterogeneous wireless networks, the opportunistic routing paradigm has been proposed and developed in recent research works. Motivated by the great interest that has been attributed to this new paradigm within the last decade, we provide a comprehensive survey of the existing literature related to opportunistic routing. We first study the main design building blocks of opportunistic routing. Then, we provide a taxonomy for opportunistic routing proposals, based on their routing objectives as well as the optimization tools and approaches used in the routing design. Hence, five opportunistic routing classes are defined and studied in this paper, namely, geographic opportunistic routing, link-state-aware opportunistic routing, probabilistic opportunistic routing, optimization-based opportunistic routing, and cross-layer opportunistic routing. We also review the main protocols proposed in the literature for each class. Finally, we identify and discuss the main future research directions related to the opportunistic routing design, optimization, and deployment.

Ring Routing: An Energy-Efficient Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks with a Mobile Sink

Abstract: In a typical wireless sensor network, the batteries of the nodes near the sink deplete quicker than other nodes due to the data traffic concentrating towards the sink, leaving it stranded and disrupting the sensor data reporting. To mitigate this problem, mobile sinks are proposed. They implicitly provide load-balanced data delivery and achieve uniform-energy consumption across the network. On the other hand, advertising the position of the mobile sink to the network introduces an overhead in terms of energy consumption and packet delays. In this paper, we propose Ring Routing, a novel, distributed, energy-efficient mobile sink routing protocol, suitable for time-sensitive applications, which aims to minimize this overhead while preserving the advantages of mobile sinks. Furthermore, we evaluate the performance of Ring Routing via extensive simulations.

Atypical Hierarchical Routing Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks: A Review

Abstract: Hierarchical routing in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is a very important topic that has been attracting the research community in the last decade. Typical hierarchical routing is called clustering routing, in which the network is divided into multiple clusters. Recently, some types of atypical hierarchical routing arise, including chain-based, tree-based, grid-based routing, and area-based routing. There are several survey papers that present and compare the hierarchical routing protocols from various perspectives, but a survey on atypical hierarchical routing is still missing. This paper makes a first attempt to provide a comprehensive review on atypical hierarchical routing. We offer a classification of atypical hierarchical routing of WSNs, and give detailed analysis of different logical topologies. The most representative atypical hierarchical routing protocols are described, discussed, and qualitatively compared. In particular, the advantages and disadvantages of different atypical hierarchical routing protocols are analyzed with respect to their significant performances and application scenarios. Finally, we put forward some open issues concerning the design of hierarchical WSNs. This survey aims to provide useful guidance for system designers on how to evaluate and select appropriate logical topologies and hierarchical routing protocols for specific applications.

Mobile Sink-Based Adaptive Immune Energy-Efficient Clustering Protocol for Improving the Lifetime and Stability Period of Wireless Sensor Networks

Abstract: Energy hole problem is a critical issue for data gathering in wireless sensor networks. Sensors near the static sink act as relays for far sensors and thus will deplete their energy very quickly, resulting energy holes in the sensor field. Exploiting the mobility of a sink has been widely accepted as an efficient way to alleviate this problem. However, determining an optimal moving trajectory for a mobile sink is a non-deterministic polynomial-time hard problem. Thus, this paper proposed a mobile sink-based adaptive immune energy-efficient clustering protocol (MSIEEP) to alleviate the energy holes. A MSIEEP uses the adaptive immune algorithm (AIA) to guide the mobile sink-based on minimizing the total dissipated energy in communication and overhead control packets. Moreover, AIA is used to find the optimum number of cluster heads (CHs) to improve the lifetime and stability period of the network. The performance of MSIEEP is compared with the previously published protocols; namely, low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH), genetic algorithm-based LEACH, amend LEACH, rendezvous, and mobile sink improved energy-efficient PEGASIS-based routing protocol using MATLAB. Simulation results show that MSIEEP is more reliable and energy efficient as compared with other protocols. Furthermore, it improves the lifetime, the stability, and the instability periods over the previous protocols, because it always selects CHs from high-energy nodes. Moreover, the mobile sink increases the ability of the proposed protocol to deliver packets to the destination.

Defending Against Collaborative Attacks by Malicious Nodes in MANETs: A Cooperative Bait Detection Approach

Abstract: In mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), a primary requirement for the establishment of communication among nodes is that nodes should cooperate with each other. In the presence of malevolent nodes, this requirement may lead to serious security concerns; for instance, such nodes may disrupt the routing process. In this context, preventing or detecting malicious nodes launching grayhole or collaborative blackhole attacks is a challenge. This paper attempts to resolve this issue by designing a dynamic source routing (DSR)-based routing mechanism, which is referred to as the cooperative bait detection scheme (CBDS), that integrates the advantages of both proactive and reactive defense architectures. Our CBDS method implements a reverse tracing technique to help in achieving the stated goal. Simulation results are provided, showing that in the presence of malicious-node attacks, the CBDS outperforms the DSR, 2ACK, and best-effort fault-tolerant routing (BFTR) protocols (chosen as benchmarks) in terms of packet delivery ratio and routing overhead (chosen as performance metrics).

Central Control Over Distributed Routing

Abstract: Centralizing routing decisions offers tremendous flexibility, but sacrifices the robustness of distributed protocols. In this paper, we present Fibbing, an architecture that achieves both flexibility and robustness through central control over distributed routing. Fibbing introduces fake nodes and links into an underlying link-state routing protocol, so that routers compute their own forwarding tables based on the augmented topology. Fibbing is expressive, and readily supports flexible load balancing, traffic engineering, and backup routes. Based on high-level forwarding requirements, the Fibbing controller computes a compact augmented topology and injects the fake components through standard routing-protocol messages. Fibbing works with any unmodified routers speaking OSPF. Our experiments also show that it can scale to large networks with many forwarding requirements, introduces minimal overhead, and quickly reacts to network and controller failures.

Optimized network traffic engineering using segment routing

Abstract: Segment Routing is a proposed IETF protocol to improve traffic engineering and online route selection in IP networks. The key idea in segment routing is to break up the routing path into segments in order to enable better network utilization. Segment routing also enables finer control of the routing paths and can be used to route traffic through middle boxes. This paper considers the problem of determining the optimal parameters for segment routing in the offline and online cases. We develop a traffic matrix oblivious algorithm for robust segment routing in the offline case and a competitive algorithm for online segment routing. We also show that both these algorithms work well in practice.

Cross-layer optimized routing in wireless sensor networks with duty cycle and energy harvesting

Abstract: In this paper, we propose a cross-layer optimized geographic node-disjoint multipath routing algorithm, that is, two-phase geographic greedy forwarding plus. To optimize the system as a whole, our algorithm is designed on the basis of multiple layers' interactions, taking into account the following. First is the physical layer, where sensor nodes are developed to scavenge the energy from environment, that is, node rechargeable operation a kind of idle charging process to nodes. Each node can adjust its transmission power depending on its current energy level the main object for nodes with energy harvesting is to avoid the routing hole when implementing the routing algorithm. Second is the sleep scheduling layer, where an energy-balanced sleep scheduling scheme, that is, duty cycle a kind of node sleep schedule that aims at putting the idle listening nodes in the network into sleep state such that the nodes will be awake only when they are needed, and energy-consumption-based connected k-neighborhood is applied to allow sensor nodes to have enough time to recharge energy, which takes nodes' current energy level as the parameter to dynamically schedule nodes to be active or asleep. Third is the routing layer, in which a forwarding node chooses the next-hop node based on 2-hop neighbor information rather than 1-hop. Performance of two-phase geographic greedy forwarding plus algorithm is evaluated under three different forwarding policies, to meet different application requirements. Our extensive simulations show that by cross-layer optimization, more shorter paths are found, resulting in shorter average path length, yet without causing much energy consumption. On top of these, a considerable increase of the network sleep rate is achieved. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A Survey on Centralised and Distributed Clustering Routing Algorithms for WSNs

Abstract: Wireless sensor networks have a wide range of applications because they can be adapted for various environments. They can operate independently in harsh places where a human presence is risky or even impossible. Since their life time is dependent on their batteries and replacing or recharging their batteries is impossible in rough places, it is necessary to find energy efficient routing protocols for them. In this paper, a number of well-know energy efficient routing algorithms for WSNs have been classified and presented based on their attributes.

Energy Efficient Clustering and Routing Algorithms for Wireless Sensor Networks: GA Based Approach

Abstract: Energy efficient clustering and routing are two well known problems in wireless sensor networks. In this paper, we propose genetic algorithm based approaches for clustering and routing in wireless sensor networks. The clustering is based on residual energy of the gateways and distance from sensor nodes to their corresponding cluster head. The routing scheme is also based on the residual energy of the gateways along with a trade-off between transmission distance and number of forwards. We perform extensive simulations of the proposed algorithms and compare the simulation results with that of the existing algorithms. The results demonstrate that the proposed algorithms outperform the existing algorithms in terms of various performance metrics including energy consumption, number of active nodes, first gateway die and number of dead gateway per round.

SDN-Based Routing for Efficient Message Propagation in VANET

Abstract: Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) is an intermittently connected mobile network in which message propagation is quite challenging. Conventional routing protocols proposed for VANET are usually in greedy or optimum fashion. Geographical forwarding only uses local information to make the routing decision which may lead to long packet delay, while link-based forwarding has better performance but requires much more overheads. To disseminate message efficiently in VANET, a routing protocol which has both short delivery delay time and low routing overhead is required. In this paper, we proposed a SDN-based routing framework for efficiently message propagation in VANET. Software-Defined Networking (SDN) is an emerging technology that decouples the control plane from the data forwarding plane in switches and collects all the control planes into a central controller. In SDN-based routing framework, the central controller gathers network information from switches and computes optimal routing paths for switches based on the global network information. Since switches don’t need to exchange routing information with each other, the routing overhead is much lower. This paper is the first to propose a SDN-based routing framework for efficiently message propagation in VANET. A new algorithm is developed to find the global optimal route from the source to the destination in VANET with dynamic network density. We demonstrate, through the simulation results, that our proposed framework significantly outperforms the related protocols in terms of both delivery delay time and routing overhead.

Trust based routing mechanism for securing OSLR-based MANET

Abstract: A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a kind of infrastructure-less wireless network that is self-organized by mobile nodes communicating with each other freely and dynamically. MANET can be applied to many fields, such as emergency communications after disaster, intelligent transportation, and Internet of things. With the rapid development of wireless network applications, MANET will become dense and large because more and more mobile devices are required to be interconnected. The optimized link state routing (OLSR) protocol is an efficient proactive routing protocol which is very suitable for such dense and large-scale MANET. However, in both data plane and routing plane, OLSR-based MANET suffers from many serious security threats which are difficult to resist via traditional security mechanisms. In this paper, we propose a trust based routing mechanism to alleviate this issue. In this mechanism, a trust reasoning model based on fuzzy Petri net is presented to evaluate trust values of mobile nodes. In addition, to avoid malicious or compromised nodes, a trust based routing algorithm is proposed to select a path with the maximum path trust value among all possible paths. Then we extend OLSR by using the proposed trust model and trust based routing algorithm, called FPNT-OLSR. For the implementation of FPNT-OLSR, we design a trust factor collecting method and an efficient trust information propagating method, which do not generate extra control messages. Simulation results show that FPNT-OLSR is very effective in establishing secure routes. It also performs better than existing trust based OLSR protocols in terms of packet delivery ratio, average latency and overhead.

A Multi-Agent Framework for Packet Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks

Abstract: Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have been widely investigated in recent years. One of the fundamental issues in WSNs is packet routing, because in many application domains, packets have to be routed from source nodes to destination nodes as soon and as energy efficiently as possible. To address this issue, a large number of routing approaches have been proposed. Although every existing routing approach has advantages, they also have some disadvantages. In this paper, a multi-agent framework is proposed that can assist existing routing approaches to improve their routing performance. This framework enables each sensor node to build a cooperative neighbour set based on past routing experience. Such cooperative neighbours, in turn, can help the sensor to effectively relay packets in the future. This framework is independent of existing routing approaches and can be used to assist many existing routing approaches. Simulation results demonstrate the good performance of this framework in terms of four metrics: average delivery latency, successful delivery ratio, number of live nodes and total sensing coverage.

Application of reinforcement learning to routing in distributed wireless networks: a review

Abstract: The dynamicity of distributed wireless networks caused by node mobility, dynamic network topology, and others has been a major challenge to routing in such networks. In the traditional routing schemes, routing decisions of a wireless node may solely depend on a predefined set of routing policies, which may only be suitable for a certain network circumstances. Reinforcement Learning (RL) has been shown to address this routing challenge by enabling wireless nodes to observe and gather information from their dynamic local operating environment, learn, and make efficient routing decisions on the fly. In this article, we focus on the application of the traditional, as well as the enhanced, RL models, to routing in wireless networks. The routing challenges associated with different types of distributed wireless networks, and the advantages brought about by the application of RL to routing are identified. In general, three types of RL models have been applied to routing schemes in order to improve network performance, namely Q-routing, multi-agent reinforcement learning, and partially observable Markov decision process. We provide an extensive review on new features in RL-based routing, and how various routing challenges and problems have been approached using RL. We also present a real hardware implementation of a RL-based routing scheme. Subsequently, we present performance enhancements achieved by the RL-based routing schemes. Finally, we discuss various open issues related to RL-based routing schemes in distributed wireless networks, which help to explore new research directions in this area. Discussions in this article are presented in a tutorial manner in order to establish a foundation for further research in this field.

The Generalized Consistent Vehicle Routing Problem

Abstract: The consistent vehicle routing problem ConVRP takes customer satisfaction into account by assigning one driver to a customer and by bounding the variation in the arrival times over a given planning horizon. These requirements may be too restrictive in some applications. In the generalized ConVRP GenConVRP, each customer is visited by a limited number of drivers and the variation in the arrival times is penalized in the objective function. The vehicle departure times may be adjusted to obtain stable arrival times. Additionally, customers are associated with AM/PM time windows. In contrast to previous work on the ConVRP, we do not use the template concept to generate routing plans. Our approach is based on a flexible large neighborhood search that is applied to the entire solution. Several destroy and repair heuristics have been designed to remove customers from the routes and to reinsert them at better positions. Arrival time consistency is improved by a simple 2-opt operator that reverses parts of particular routes. A computational study is performed on ConVRP benchmark instances and on new instances generated for the generalized problem. The proposed algorithm performs well on different variants of the ConVRP. It outperforms template-based approaches in terms of travel cost and time consistency. For the GenConVRP, we experiment with different input parameters and examine the trade-off between travel cost and customer satisfaction. Remarkable cost savings can be obtained by allowing more than one driver per customer.

Corrections to "Link-state routing with hop-by-hop forwarding can achieve optimal traffic engineering"

Abstract: Presents corrections to the paper, “Link-state routing with hop-by-hop forwarding can achieve optimal traffic engineering,” (Xu, D., et al)IEEE/ACM Trans. Netw., vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 1717–1730, Dec. 2011).

The Time Window Assignment Vehicle Routing Problem

Abstract: In this paper we introduce the time window assignment vehicle routing problem TWAVRP. In this problem, time windows have to be assigned before demand is known. Next, a realization of demand is revealed, and a vehicle routing schedule is made that satisfies the assigned time windows. The objective is to minimize the expected traveling costs. We propose a branch-price-and-cut algorithm to solve the TWAVRP to optimality. We provide results of computational experiments performed using this algorithm. Finally, we offer insight on the value of an exact approach for the TWAVRP by comparing the optimal solution to the solution found by assigning time windows based on solving a vehicle routing problem with time windows with average demand.

Experimental analysis of AODV, DSDV and OLSR routing protocol for flying adhoc networks (FANETs)

Abstract: In recent years the capability and role of Mobile Adhoc Networks have rapidly evolved. Their use in emergency, natural disaster, military battle fields and UAVs is getting very popular as a result of cutting edge technologies in networking and communication. Using the concept of MANET new networking paradigms like VANET and FANET have evolved. FANET is comparably new concept of MANET and it has capabilities to tackle with situations where traditional MANET cannot do so. Due to high mobility and fast topology change in FANET, this is highly challengeable for researcher to implement routing in FANETs. Routing protocols play a dominating role in enhancing the performance of adhoc networks. In this paper, experimental analysis is carried out on AODV, DSDV and OLSR routing protocol for FANET environment using NS2 simulator.

A distributed algorithm for energy efficient and fault tolerant routing in wireless sensor networks

Abstract: Energy conservation and fault tolerance are the most two important challenging issues for the development of large scale wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Failure of cluster heads in a cluster based WSN is more catastrophic as they are responsible not only for data aggregation and transmission of the aggregated data to the base station but also relaying data for multi-hop communication. Therefore, a routing algorithm in WSNs should be energy aware as well as fault tolerant. In this paper, we present a distributed energy efficient and fault tolerant routing algorithm for WSNs. The algorithm selects next-hop cluster head in energy efficient manner in the data routing phase and carefully restores the connectivity of the neighbours of a cluster head in case of its failure. The algorithm is tested extensively by considering several scenarios of WSN. The experimental results are compared with the existing algorithms in terms of several metrics to show the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

Geographic-Based Spray-and-Relay (GSaR): An Efficient Routing Scheme for DTNs

Abstract: In this paper, we design and evaluate the proposed geographic-based spray-and-relay (GSaR) routing scheme in delay/disruption-tolerant networks. To the best of our knowledge, GSaR is the first spray-based geographic routing scheme using historical geographic information for making a routing decision. Here, the term spray means that only a limited number of message copies are allowed for replication in the network. By estimating a movement range of destination via the historical geographic information, GSaR expedites the message being sprayed toward this range, meanwhile prevents that away from and postpones that out of this range. As such, the combination of them intends to fast and efficiently spray the limited number of message copies toward this range and effectively spray them within range, to reduce the delivery delay and increase the delivery ratio. Furthermore, GSaR exploits delegation forwarding to enhance the reliability of the routing decision and handle the local maximum problem, which is considered to be the challenges for applying the geographic routing scheme in sparse networks. We evaluate GSaR under three city scenarios abstracted from real world, with other routing schemes for comparison. Results show that GSaR is reliable for delivering messages before the expiration deadline and efficient for achieving low routing overhead ratio. Further observation indicates that GSaR is also efficient in terms of a low and fair energy consumption over the nodes in the network.

Throughput Optimality and Overload Behavior of Dynamical Flow Networks Under Monotone Distributed Routing

Abstract: This paper investigates the throughput behavior of single-commodity dynamical flow networks governed by monotone distributed routing policies. The networks are modeled as systems of ordinary differential equations based on mass conversation laws on directed graphs with limited flow capacities on the links and constant external inflows at certain origin nodes. Under monotonicity assumptions on the routing policies, it is proven that, if the external inflow at the origin nodes does not violate any cut capacity constraints, then there exists a globally asymptotically stable equilibrium, and the network achieves maximal throughput. On the contrary, should such a constraint be violated, the network overload behavior is characterized. In particular, it is established that there exists a cut with respect to which the flow densities on every link grow linearly over time (respectively, reach their respective limits simultaneously) in the case where the buffer capacities are infinite (respectively, finite).

Poptrie: A Compressed Trie with Population Count for Fast and Scalable Software IP Routing Table Lookup

Abstract: Internet of Things leads to routing table explosion. An inexpensive approach for IP routing table lookup is required against ever growing size of the Internet. We contribute by a fast and scalable software routing lookup algorithm based on a multiway trie, called Poptrie. Named after our approach to traversing the tree, it leverages the population count instruction on bit-vector indices for the descendant nodes to compress the data structure within the CPU cache. Poptrie outperforms the state-of-the-art technologies, Tree BitMap, DXR and SAIL, in all of the evaluations using random and real destination queries on 35 routing tables, including the real global tier-1 ISP's full-route routing table. Poptrie peaks between 174 and over 240 Million lookups per second (Mlps) with a single core and tables with 500--800k routes, consistently 4--578% faster than all competing algorithms in all the tests we ran. We provide the comprehensive performance evaluation, remarkably with the CPU cycle analysis. This paper shows the suitability of Poptrie in the future Internet including IPv6, where a larger route table is expected with longer prefixes.