Showing papers on "Digital image correlation published in 2018"

Additional hardening in harmonic structured materials by strain partitioning and back stress

Abstract: Deformation behavior of a harmonic structured material (HSM), core–shell 304L stainless steel, is investigated using micro-digital image correlation (micro-DIC). High strain-partitioning between co...

Review of single-camera stereo-digital image correlation techniques for full-field 3D shape and deformation measurement

Abstract: Single-camera stereo-digital image correlation (stereo-DIC) techniques have gained increasing attentions and demonstrated excellent prospects in the experimental mechanics community owing to their prominent advantages of cost-effectiveness, compactness, and the avoidance of the complicated camera synchronization. Using additional optical devices, e.g. a diffraction grating, a bi-prism or a set of planar mirrors, pseudo stereo images of a test sample surface can be recorded with a single camera. By correlating these stereo images using DIC, full-field three-dimensional (3D) shape and deformation can be retrieved. This review comprehensively summarizes the historical development, methodologies, strengths and weaknesses of the diffraction grating-based, prism-based, four-mirror-adaptor-based single-camera stereo-DIC techniques, and the recently proposed novel full-frame single color camera-based stereo-DIC technique for full-field 3D shape and deformation measurement. The optical arrangements, principles and calibration procedures of these single-camera stereo-DIC techniques are described in detail. Since high-speed deformation measurement is efficiently achieved by combining the single-camera stereo-DIC with one high-speed camera, single-camera stereo-DIC techniques show great potential in impact engineering, vibration and other dynamic tests.

Cracking Processes and Coalescence Modes in Rock-Like Specimens with Two Parallel Pre-existing Cracks

Abstract: The cracks in a rock tend to initiate, propagate, and coalesce under loading. Based on the digital image correlation (DIC) method, uniaxial compression tests are carried out on rock-like specimens with various arrangements of two parallel cracks. The full-field strain and failure features of the rock-like materials are observed and analysis by a self-developed code. Two process zones are defined according to the differences between the shear strain field and the tensile strain field: a shear process zone and a tensile process zone. The following results are obtained in this study. (1) Three coalescence modes can be observed using the DIC method: a shear coalescence mode, a tensile coalescence mode, and a mixed coalescence mode. (2) At the microscopic level, the bridge angle and crack arrangement affect the formation of the process zone; at the macroscopic level, they determine the crack propagation path and the failure mode. (3) The peak strength of the rock-like specimen is related to the crack inclination angle and the bridge angle. (4) Numerical modeling by the expanded distinct element method and the strain strength criterion simulates the different coalescence modes of the experimental study efficiently.

In-situ distortions in LMD additive manufacturing walls can be measured with digital image correlation and predicted using numerical simulations

Abstract: Distortions in Additive Manufacturing (AM) Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) occur in the newly-built component due to rapid heating and solidification and can lead to shape deviations and cracking. This paper presents a novel approach to quantify the distortions experimentally and to use the results in numerical simulation validation. Digital Image Correlation (DIC) is applied together with optical filters to measure in-situ distortions directly on a wall geometry produced with LMD. The wall shows cyclic expansion and shrinking with the edges bending inward and the top of the sample exhibiting a slight u‐shape as residual distortions. Subsequently, a structural Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of the experiment is established, calibrated against experimental temperature profiles and used to predict the in-situ distortions of the sample. A comparison of the experimental and numerical results reveals a good agreement in length direction of the sample and quantitative deviations in height direction, which are attributed to the material model used. The suitability of the novel experimental approach for measurements on an AM sample is shown and the potential for the validated numerical model as a predictive tool to reduce trial-and-error and improve part quality is evaluated.

Revealing mechanisms of residual stress development in additive manufacturing via digital image correlation

Abstract: The severe thermal gradients associated with selective laser melting (SLM) additive manufacturing (AM) generate large residual stresses (RS) that geometrically distort and otherwise alter the performance of printed parts. Despite broad research interest in this field, it has remained challenging to measure warpage in general as well as RS distributions in situ, which has obfuscated the mechanisms of stress formation during the printing process. In pursuit of this goal, we have developed a non-destructive framework for RS measurement in SLM parts using three-dimensional digital image correlation (3D-DIC) to capture in situ surface distortion. A two-dimensional analytical model was developed to convert DIC surface curvature measurements to estimates of in-plane residual stresses. Experimental validation using stainless steel 316 L “inverted-cone” parts demonstrated that residual stress varied across the surface of the printed part, and strongly interacted with the component geometry. The 3D-DIC based RS measurements were validated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), with an average error of 6% between measured and analytically derived stresses. Systematic variation in RS was attributed to the sector-based laser raster strategy, which was supported by complementary finite element calculations. Calculations showed that the heterogeneous RS distribution in the parts emerged from the sequential re-heating and cooling of the new surface, and changed dynamically between layers. The unique DIC based RS methodology brings substantial benefits over alternatively proposed in situ AM RS measurements, and should facilitate enhanced process optimization and understanding leading towards AM part qualification.

Incorporating grain-level residual stresses and validating a crystal plasticity model of a two-phase Ti-6Al-4 V alloy produced via additive manufacturing

Abstract: Titanium alloys, produced via additive manufacturing techniques, offer tremendous benefits over conventional manufacturing processes. However, there is inherent uncertainty associated with their properties, often stemming from the variability in the manufacturing process itself along with the presence of residual stresses in the material, which prevents their use as critical components. This work investigates Ti-6Al-4 V produced via selective laser melting by carrying out crystal plasticity finite element (CPFE) simulations and high-resolution digital image correlation (HR-DIC) on samples subject to cyclic loading. This is preceded by detailed material characterization using electron backscatter diffraction, back-scattered electron imaging and transmission electron microscopy, whose results are utilized to inform the CPFE model. A method to incorporate the effect of grain-level residual stresses via geometrically necessary dislocations is developed and implemented within the CPFE framework. Using this approach, grain level information about residual stresses obtained spatially over the region of interest, directly from the experimental material characterization, is utilized as an input to the model. Simulation results match well with HR-DIC and indicate that prior β boundaries play an important role in strain localization. In addition, possible sites for damage nucleation are identified, which correspond to regions of high plastic strain accumulation.

Role of heat treatment and build orientation in the microstructure sensitive deformation characteristics of IN718 produced via SLM additive manufacturing

Abstract: The benefits of additive manufacturing have been well documented, but prior to these materials being used in critical applications, the deformation mechanisms must be properly characterized. In this work, the role of heat treatment and build orientation of selective laser melting IN718 is investigated through detailed characterization. The microstructure of this material is probed through a combination of electron microscopy to identify the precipitate structure, electron backscatter diffraction to quantify the grain-level features, and synchrotron-based X-ray microcomputed tomography to detect porosity. A high degree of porosity is observed spatially near the free surface of the part, where the contour during the build process meets the interior hatch. Further, microstructure based deformation mechanisms are explored through digital image correlation relative to the grain features after monotonic and cyclic loading and in situ high-energy X-ray diffraction to identify the lattice strain evolution in these materials. Demarcations between the behaviors of the as-built versus post-processed materials are discussed; specifically, in terms of anisotropy with respect to build direction and values of the strength properties, based on the grain morphology, coherent twin formation, and precipitate structure. Lastly, the presence of dislocation sub-structures within the grains is observed to homogenize deformation within the as-built sample, while strain partitioning is observed during loading of the post-processed sample.

Quantitative Assessment of Digital Image Correlation Methods to Detect and Monitor Surface Displacements of Large Slope Instabilities

Abstract: We evaluate the capability of three different digital image correlation (DIC) algorithms to measure long-term surface displacement caused by a large slope instability in the Swiss Alps. DIC was applied to high-resolution optical imagery taken by airborne sensors, and the accuracy of the displacements assessed against global navigation satellite system measurements. A dynamic radiometric correction of the input images prior to DIC application was shown to enhance both the correlation success and accuracy. Moreover, a newly developed spatial filter considering the displacement direction and magnitude proved to be an effective tool to enhance DIC performance and accuracy. Our results show that all algorithms are capable of quantifying slope instability displacements, with average errors ranging from 8 to 12% of the observed maximum displacement, depending on the DIC processing parameters, and the pre- and postprocessing of the in- and output. Among the tested approaches, the results based on a fast Fourier transform correlation approach provide a considerably better spatial coverage of the displacement field of the slope instability. The findings of this study are relevant for slope instability detection and monitoring via DIC, especially in the context of an ever-increasing availability of high-resolution air- and spaceborne imagery.

Sensing dynamic displacements in masonry rail bridges using 2D digital image correlation

Abstract: Dynamic displacement measurements provide useful information for the assessment of masonry rail bridges, which constitute a significant part of the bridge stock in the United Kingdom and Europe. Commercial 2D digital image correlation (DIC) techniques are well suited for this purpose. These systems provide precise noncontact displacement measurements simultaneously at many locations of the bridge with an easily configured camera set-up. However, various sources of errors can affect the resolution, repeatability, and accuracy of DIC field measurements. Typically, these errors are application specific and are not automatically corrected by commercial software. To address this limitation, this paper presents a survey of relevant DIC errors and discusses methods to minimise the influence of these errors during equipment set-up and data processing. A case study application of DIC for multipoint displacement measurement of a masonry viaduct in Leeds is then described, where potential errors due to lighting changes, image texture, and camera movements are minimised with an appropriate set-up. Pixel-metric scaling errors are kept to a minimum with the use of a calibration method, which utilises vanishing points in the image. However, comparisons of DIC relative displacement measurements to complementary strain measurements from the bridge demonstrate that other errors may have significant influence on the DIC measurement accuracy. Therefore, the influence of measurement errors due to lens radial distortion and out-of-plane movements is quantified theoretically with pinhole camera and division distortion models. A method to correct for errors due to potential out-of-plane movements is then proposed.

Multi-scale digital image correlation for detection and quantification of matrix cracks in carbon fiber composite laminates in the absence and presence of voids controlled by the cure cycle

Abstract: Digital image correlation is applied to the images of a deforming composite to obtain strain maps at three length scales: micro-scale (ply level, hundreds of micrometers), meso-scale (laminate level, millimeters), and macro-scale (specimen level, tens of millimeters). The images are acquired in-situ with optical cameras and an electron microscope. The strain mapping at the macro- and meso-scales allows semi-automatic detection of matrix cracks and quantification of their density evolution in function of the applied strain. The micro-scale examination provides additional insights into the failure mechanisms. The technique is developed and then applied to characterize transverse cracking in cross-ply carbon fiber/epoxy composites in the absence and presence of manufacturing defects (including voids). Laminates with defects were produced by lowering the autoclave pressure and the cure temperature, intentionally. The strain for cracking onset and the saturation crack density are found to be different in the inner and outer transverse plies of both types of laminates. The change in processing conditions that led to the presence of voids and incomplete matrix cure resulted in a lower strain for cracking onset and up to 3.5 times increase of the crack density in comparison with the reference material without defects.

High-Resolution Deformation Mapping Across Large Fields of View Using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Digital Image Correlation

Abstract: This paper details the creation of experimental and computational frameworks to capture high-resolution, microscale deformation mechanisms and their relation to microstructure over large (mm-scale) fields of view Scanning electron microscopy with custom automation and external beam control was used to capture 209 low-distortion micrographs of 360 μm × 360 μm each, that were individually correlated using digital image correlation to obtain displacement/strain fields with a spatial resolution of 044 μm Displacement and strain fields, as well as secondary electron images, were subsequently stitched to create a 57 mm × 34 mm field of view containing 100 million (7678 × 13,004) data points This approach was demonstrated on Mg WE43 under uniaxial compression, where effective strain was shown to be relatively constant with respect to distance from the grain boundary, and a noticeable increase in the effective strain was found with an increase in the basal Schmid factor The ability to obtain high-resolution deformations over statistically relevant fields of view enables large data analytics to examine interactions between microstructure, microscale strain localizations, and macroscopic properties

Strain Rate Sensitivity of a TRIP-Assisted Dual-Phase High-Entropy Alloy

Abstract: Dual-phase high-entropy alloys (DP-HEAs) with transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) have an excellent strength-ductility combination. To reveal their strain-rate sensitivity and hence further understand the corresponding deformation mechanisms, we investigated the tensile behavior and microstructural evolution of a typical TRIP-DP-HEA (Fe50Mn30Co10Cr10, at. %) under different strain rates (i.e., 5 × 10-3 s-1, 1 × 10-3 s-1, 5 × 10-4 s-1 and 1 × 10-4 s-1) at room temperature. The strain rate range was confined to this regime in order to apply the digital image correlation technique for probing the local strain evolution during tensile deformation at high resolution and to correlate it to the microstructure evolution. Grain size effects of the face-centered cubic (FCC) matrix and the volume fractions of the hexagonal-close packed (HCP) phase prior to deformation were also considered. The results show that within the explored strain rate regime the TRIP-DP-HEA has a fairly low strain rate sensitivity parameter within the range from 0.004 to 0.04, which is significantly lower than that of DP and TRIP steels. Samples with varying grain sizes (e.g., ~2.8 μm and ~38 μm) and starting HCP phase fractions (e.g., ~25% and ~72%) at different strain rates show similar deformation mechanisms, i.e., dislocation plasticity and strain-induced transformation from the FCC matrix to the HCP phase. The low strain rate sensitivity is attributed to the observed dominant displacive transformation mechanism. Also, the coarse-grained alloy samples with a very high starting HCP phase fraction (~72%) prior to deformation show very good ductility with a total elongation of ~60%, suggesting that both, the initial and the transformed HCP phase in the TRIP-DP-HEA are ductile and deform further via dislocation slip at the different strain rates which were probed.

Application of 3D-DIC to characterize the effect of aggregate size and volume on non-uniform shrinkage strain distribution in concrete

Abstract: To elucidate the effect of aggregate size and volume on the non-uniform strain distribution in concrete, drying shrinkage of mortar and concretes were determined with 3D digital image correlation (3D-DIC). The distribution of shrinkage displacements and strains in mortar and concrete were analyzed. The results show that 3D-DIC makes it possible to measure non-uniform displacement distributions initiated by shrinkage in mortar and concrete. The non-uniformity became more remarkable with drying time. The presence of aggregates larger than 5 mm in concrete have locally changed the displacement and strain fields. Aggregates within 5–25 mm make non-uniform strain of concrete more fluctuant, especially when the aggregate size is larger than 10 mm. The maximum and minimum principal strain distributions became more heterogeneous with decreasing volume of aggregates.