Showing papers on "Dilemma published in 1999"

Sanctioning Systems, Decision Frames, and Cooperation:

Abstract: Three studies are used to examine how surveillance and sanctioning systems affect cooperative behavior in dilemma situations. The first two studies demonstrate that a weak sanctioning system result...

Whistleblowing: A Restrictive Definition and Interpretation

Abstract: Whistleblowing has been defined often and in differing ways in the literature. This paper has as its main purposes to clarify the meaning of whistleblowing and to speak for a narrow interpretation of it. A restrictive, general purpose definition is provided which contains six necessary elements: act of disclosure, actor, disclosure subject, target, disclosure recipient, and outcome. Whistleblowing is characterised as a dissenting act of public accusation against an organisation which necessitates being disloyal to that organisation. The definition differs from others in many ways but especially by its emphasis on dissent, by being based on the ethical dilemma of conflicting loyalties, and by the strict way that dilemma is formulated in terms of confidentiality and proprietary rights over information. These features result in a definition in which motive has no part, and which requires a free choice decision to make disclosure to an external party.

Service-Learning: A Movement's Pioneers Reflect on Its Origins, Practice, and Future

Abstract: 1. Helping a "New" Field Discover Its History. 2. Early Connections between Service and Education (Seth S. Pollack). 3. Seeds of Commitment: Personal Accounts of the Pioneers. 4. First Professional Steps: A Journey into Uncharted Territory. 5. Which Side Were They On? The Pioneers Target Higher Education. 6. Strategy and Practice: Empowering Students to Serve Communities. 7. Strategy and Practice: Empowering Communities through Student Service. 8. Mainstreams or Margins? The Dilemma of Institutionalization. 9. Helps, Hindrances, and Accomplishments: Reflections on the Pioneer Experience. 10. Passing the Torch: Advice to Today's Students and Practitioners.

Empathy-induced altruism in a prisoner's dilemma

Abstract: Can empathy-induced altruism motivate a person to cooperate in a prisoner's dilemma? To answer this question, 60 undergraduate women were placed in a one-trial prisoner's dilemma, and empathy for the other person was manipulated. Regardless of whether the dilemma was framed as a social exchange or as a business transaction, cooperation was significantly higher among those women led to feel empathy for the other than among those not led to feel empathy. Among those not led to feel empathy, the business frame reduced cooperation, lending support to the idea of an exemption on moral motivation in business transactions. Lack of a business exemption on empathy-induced altruism supported the suggestion that altruism is not simply a type of moral motivation, but is a distinct form of prosocial motivation. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Anomalous Behavior in a Traveler's Dilemma?

Abstract: The notion of a Nash equilibrium has joined supply and demand as one of the two or three techniques that economists instinctively try to use first in the analysis of economic interactions. Moreover, the Nash equilibrium and closely related game-theoretic concepts are being widely applied in other social sciences and even in biology, where evolutionary stability often selects a subset of the Nash equilibria. Many people are uneasy about the stark predictions of the Nash equilibrium in some contexts where the extreme rationality assumptions seem implausible. Kaushik Basu’s (1994) “traveler’s dilemma” is a particularly convincing example of a case where the unrelenting logic of game theory is at odds with intuitive notions about human behavior. The story associated with the dilemma is that two travelers purchase identical antiques while on a tropical vacation. Their luggage is lost on the return trip, and the airline asks them to make independent claims for compensation. In anticipation of excessive claims, the airline representative announces:

Reciprocity, trust, and the sense of control : A cross-societal study

Abstract: Most cognitive approaches for explaining cooperation in Prisoner's Dilemma games include the view that many people believe that mutual cooperation is generally a gainful strategy to all parties and will cooperate when they think their partner cooperates. Proceeding along these lines, we argue that many participants treat a Prisoner's Dilemma game as an assurance game, and respond in a reciprocal manner to the choice or expected choice of their partner. We examine two bases for the expectation of a partner's cooperation in one-shot games: `general trust' and a `sense of control'. Further, we discuss why we expect general trust and a `sense of control'. Further, we discuss why we expect general trust and a sense of control to play different roles in societies, particularly in Japanese society and American society. Specifically, we test a general hypothesis that a sense of control plays a relatively more important role as a foundation for expectations in Japanese society and general trust plays the more impo...

Marketing and the Tragedy of the Commons: A Synthesis, Commentary, and Analysis for Action

Abstract: The authors contend that solutions to the most pressing environmental challenges will result from understanding and solving social traps such as the commons dilemma. They propose a synthesis for an...

Variable investment, the Continuous Prisoner's Dilemma, and the origin of cooperation.

Abstract: Cooperation is fundamental to many biological systems. A common metaphor for studying the evolution of cooperation is the Prisoner's Dilemma, a game with two strategies: cooperate or defect. However, cooperation is rare all or nothing, and its evolution probably involves the gradual extension of initially modest degrees of assistance. The inability of the Prisoner's Dilemma to capture this basic aspect limits its use for understanding the evolutionary origins of cooperation. Here we consider a framework for cooperation based on the concept of investment: an act which is costly, but which benefits other individuals, where the cost and benefit depend on the level of investment made. In the resulting Continuous Prisoner's Dilemma the essential problem of cooperation remains: in the absence of any additional structure non-zero levels of investment cannot evolve. However, if investments are considered in a spatially structured context, selfish individuals who make arbitrarily low investments can be invaded by higher-investing mutants. This results in the mean level of investment evolving to significant levels, where it is maintained indefinitely. This approach provides a natural solution to the fundamental problem of how cooperation gradually increases from a non-cooperative state.

Risk Perception by the Public and by Experts: A Dilemma in Risk Management 1

Abstract: Experts and the public frequently disagree when it comes to risk assessment, indicating a lack of trust among the general public. The reasons for such disagreement are discussed, and it is pointed out that disagreement among experts and lack of full understanding of real risks contributes to skepticism among the public. The notion that people are in general reacting in a highly emotional and non-rational, phobic, manner is rejected. The conditions for risk assessment, and common-sense cognitive dynamics, are better explanations of risk perception. If trust is to be established in a country or community where it is quite low some kind of politically regulated public influence on decision making and risk monitoring is probably needed, e.g. by means of a publicly elected and responsible ombudsman.

How do researchers influence decision-makers? Case studies of Mexican policies.

Abstract: Though the problems translating or applying research in policy-making are legion, solutions are rare. As developing countries increase their capacities to develop effective local solutions to their health problems, they confront the research/policy dilemma. Yet few descriptive studies of research-policy links can be found from developing countries, and the relevance of European and North American models and data is questionable. We report the results of a descriptive study from Mexico of the relationship between health research and policy in four vertical programmes (AIDS, cholera, family planning, immunization). We interviewed 67 researchers and policy-makers from different institutions and levels of responsibility. We analyzed interviewee responses looking for factors that promoted or impeded exchanges between researchers and policy-makers. These were, in turn, divided into emphases on content, actors, process, and context. Many of the promoting factors resembled findings from studies in industrialized countries. Some important differences across the four programmes, which also distinguish them from industrialized country programmes, included extent of reliance on formal communication channels, role of the mass media in building social consensus or creating discord, levels of social consensus, role of foreign donors, and extent of support for biomedical versus social research. We recommend various ways to increase the impact of research on health policy-making in Mexico. Some of the largest challenges include the fact that researchers are but one of many interest groups, and research but one input among many equally legitimate elements to be considered by policy-makers. Another important challenge in Mexico is the relatively small role played by the public in policy-making. Further democratic changes in Mexico may be the most important incentive to increase the use of research in policy-making.

Three Social Dilemmas of Workforce Diversity in Organizations: A Social Identity Perspective

Abstract: This paper explores the relationship among three social dilemmas faced by organizations wishing to attain and maintain workforce diversity: the dilemmas of organizational participation, managerial participation, and individual participation. Functional and social category diversity offer benefits for organizations (creativity, adaptation and innovation, and access to external networks), but there are costs which deter organizations from pursuing these benefits. The costs associated with organizational participation in diversity initiatives arise because managers and their employees perceive organizational conflicts and organize their interactions along social identity lines, so that temporal traps and collective fences surround diversity. Resolving the subordinate dilemmas of managerial and individual participation provides the key to resolving the dilemma of organizational participation. Social identity theory is used to understand the dilemmas and to develop possible resolutions, which should make the b...

The information dilemma in negotiations: effects of experience, incentives, and integrative potential

Abstract: This paper investigates the information dilemma in negotiations: if negotiators reveal information about their priorities and preferences, more efficient agreements may be reached but the shared information may be used strategically by the other negotiator, to the revealers' disadvantage. We present a theoretical model that focuses on the characteristics of the negotiators, the structure of the negotiation, and the available incentives; it predicts that experienced negotiators will out‐perform naive negotiators on distributive (competitive) tasks, especially when they have information about their counterpart's preferences and the incentives are high—unless the task is primarily integrative, in which case information will contribute to the negotiators maximizing joint gain. Two experiments (one small, one large) showed that the revelation of one's preferences was costly and that experienced negotialors outperformed their naive counterparts by a wide margin, particularly when the task and issues were distributive and incentives were large. Our results help to identify the underlying dynamics of the information dilemma and lead to a discussion of the connections between information and social dilemmas and the potential for avoiding inefficiencies.

English Unassailable but Unattainable: The Dilemma of Language Policy in South African Education.

Abstract: This paper considers the concept of English as a global language in the context of South African educational policy. The paper first notes that the richer a country is the more possible it is for the rulers to take the social costs of language policy into account, i.e., the Netherlands and Canada can spend vast sums on different aspects of language policy, especially on the learning of foreign languages and on the accommodation of the languages of immigrant minorities, whereas most African countries are constrained to implement language in education policies that might seem irrational. It points out that for reasons that have to do with the modalities of colonial oppression in the 19th and 20th centuries, it seemed as though every newly independent African state was doomed to take the same language policy detour by accepting in practice the primacy of the ex-colonial language. It also discusses the existence of what has been called the "ESL industry" and its marginalizing effects on the African languages and the consequent disempowerment of the speakers of those languages. The paper then concentrates on the new language policy in education in South Africa and discusses the dilemmas and the problems to which this has given rise. It states that the most important features of the policy in regard to language medium is its commitment to an additive bilingualism approach as the desirable norm in all South African schools. The paper discusses the implications of this policy in detail. (Contains 31 references.) (NKA) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. English Unassailable but Unattainable: The Dilemma of Language Policy in South African Education. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it. 0 Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality. . Points of view or opinions staled In this document do not necessarily represent official C1 OERI position or policy. CID by Neville Alexander

Toward a Constructivist Framework for Guiding Change and Innovation in Higher Education.

Abstract: Introduction The authors of Exploiting Information Systems in Higher Education: An Issues Paper (JISC, 1995) identify several trends that will characterize higher education in the next decade: greater competition for funds and students; more efficient management; possibly fewer institutions, some very specialized; more demanding students who will want flexible teaching patterns to enhance their career prospects; more challenging learning and research programs; and closer integration at regional and local levels while networking internationally. For many countries, central to the vision of higher education in the millennium is the expectation that it can make a distinctive contribution to the development of a learning society, not only by nurturing notions such as lifelong learning but also by enhancing their capacity to meet international standards as these relate to teaching, scholarship, and research (National Committee, 1997, p. 7). Few would argue that these new directions require fundamental rethinking about the purpose and structure of higher education, because universities in many English-speaking countries are "being transformed from sheltered institutions of the pre-modern world to public service organisations in a modern (or, some would suggest) post-modern world" (Robertson, 1994, p. 313). The dilemma for higher education institutions is exacerbated, for they are experiencing relative financial contraction with increase in demand. Davies (1997) notes that this situation "seems to be the dominant one at present in the United States, United Kingdom, most of Western Europe (apart from perhaps to a lesser extent, Germany and France), certainly in Eastern Europe (in the development of the market, post-Communist economy) and in Australia" (pp. 131-132). Yet, while the keys, in broad terms, to effecting successful change, well synthesized by Kirkpatrick (1985) over a decade ago, continue to be empathy, communication, and participation, in actual practice these attributes are frequently found wanting. Too often new approaches are introduced by executive fiat or through a centralist management strategy, or at worst through ad hoc and hurried planning interventions in response to years of benign neglect. It seems a rarity indeed for academics to genuinely feel that they are part of a meaningful, participatory decision-making process that values their experience or even their instinct for seeing potential pitfalls. Berman and McLaughlin (1978) in a four-year study of close to three hundred projects underscored the importance of effective involvement and change strategies in education, noting that these "could spell the difference between success or failure, almost independently of the type of innovation or educational method involved; moreover, they could determine whether teachers would assimilate and continue using project methods or allow them to fall into disuse" (p. vii). Academic Culture and Decision-Making Organizational change and diffusion of innovation in higher education have been the subject of numerous analyses in recent years, many focusing on the cultural realities of academic leadership and decision making (see also Baldridge & Riley, 1977; Masland, 1985). Although there is recognition that the inner workings of an institution are governed to a large measure by external factors, most notably the magnitude of the grants provided by government and conditions under which these are supplied (Davies, 1997, p. 132; see also Leslie's, 1995, discussion of Resource Dependency Theory), there are good reasons for focusing on the building and management of institutional culture(s): A healthy culture can promote identification (who we are), legitimation (why we need to do) communication (with whom we talk), coordination (with whom we work) and development (what are the dominant perspectives and tasks). (Davies, 1997, p. 135) Birnbaum (1988) identifies four kinds of institutional cultures (collegial, bureaucratic, political, and anarchical), each illustrating different hypotheses regarding the nature of organizational life and change. …

The dilemma of transparency: Seeing and seeing through talk in the mathematics classroom

Abstract: In this article talk is understood to be a resource for mathematical learning in school. As a resource it needs to be both seen (be visible) to be used and seen through (be invisible) to provide access to mathematical learning. Lave and Wenger's (1991) concept of transparency captures this dual function of talk as a learning resource in the practice of school mathematics. I argue that the dual functions, visibility and invisibility, of talk in mathematics classrooms create dilemmas for teachers. An analytic narrative vignette drawn from a secondary mathematics classroom in South Africa illustrates the dilemma of transparency that mathematics teachers can face, particularly if they are teaching multilingual classes.

Leadership in Boundaryless Organizations: Disposable or Indispensable?

Abstract: The emergence of "post-bureaucratic" "boundaryless" organizations raises questions about the role of leadership in such organizational forms. In this article I analyse the basic characteristics of emerging organizational forms and offer a theory-guided speculation about the function and nature of leadership within such forms. The analysis exposes a basic dilemma: On the one hand, the temporary, adhoc and "virtual" nature of new organizational arrangements, in combination with greater tendencies toward equality and participation, seem to reduce the need and scope for traditional leadership in organizations. On the other hand, the weakening of both bureaucratic and cultural mechanisms of control and co-ordination seems to increase the need and scope for strong leadership. A related dilemma concerns the need for leaders to serve simultaneously as both agents of change and "centres of gravity" in organizations that cope with rapidly changing environments. These dilemmas pose practical challenges for leaders a...

Can Schools be Communities? The Tension between Shared Values and Inclusion

Abstract: This article considers a central dilemma associated with school communities, the ten- sion between the need for shared values that are constitutive enough to serve as the basis for community and the premises of liberal inclusiveness. The author evaluates 3 candidates for school-community values—comprehensive doctrines, caring, and democracy—and concludes that, if a value is a constitutive one, then it cannot be consis- tent with liberal inclusiveness. He suggests a middle ground based in variants of these values that are thick, but vague, and more freedom of association within the public school system around these values. This article explores a dilemma about schools as communities. The dilemma is this: Whereas there are any number of characteristics that are associated with the idea of a community, a particularly important one is that communities are united by shared values. However, values that might forge school communities can be divided analytically into two types, those that are too thin to constitute an educational community and those that are too thick to be inclusive. This dilemma turns on a distinction between what I call consti- tutive and nonconstitutive values. Constitutive values are thick enough to cre- ate community but are too thick to be inclusive. Because constitutive values are typically the basis of private associations, my argument invites the con- clusion that we can only have genuine educational communities in the private sector, where communities of the like-minded are formed through free asso- ciation. I do not, however, draw this conclusion. First, constitutive values come in degrees and varieties. Some constitutive values are big tented— thick, but vague. They can accommodate significant diversity. Second, some measure of freedom of association is possible in the public sector. I argue that looking for a middle ground with thick, but vague constitutive values and

Empowering practice?: A critical appraisal of the family group conference approach

Abstract: The dilemma of empowerment partnership and empowerment in children's services lessons from New Zealand empowering professionals international perspectives empowerment in process? assessing outcomes in child welfare empowering outcomes.

The Impact of Personal Metering in the Management of a Natural Resource Crisis: A Social Dilemma Analysis:

Abstract: A field study and scenario study were conducted to investigate the impact of a structural solution in the management of a natural resource dilemma: the effects of individual metering in a water shortage. It was predicted that metering would be beneficial in promoting conservation, in particular, when people experienced a shortage. Consistent with expectations, the results of both studies revealed that conservation efforts were greater among metered (vs. unmetered) participants when they perceived the water shortage as severe. Additional analyses suggested that the positive effect of metering could be partially explained by a greater concern with the collective costs of overconsumption during the drought. Our findings suggest that structural solutions, such as metering, may produce concomitant effects that extend beyond the outcome structure of the social dilemma.

Patent Pools and the Antitrust Dilemma

Abstract: A new era has begun in antitrust regulation ofpatent pools. With the issuance of the 1995 Antitrust Guidelines for the Licensing of Intellectual Property and the 1997 Department of Justice approval of the MPEG LA patent pool, federal antitrust authorities have espoused a more permissive attitude toward patent pools and cross-licensing arrangements than in recent decades. Procompetitive benefits undoubtedly justify the formation of patent pools in certain contexts, but serious anticompetitive risks are also present, particularly in standard-dependent industries. This Note argues that the Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission should not adopt a per se rule of legality for the pooling of blocking patents, and that these agencies must carefully delineate the permissible scope of broader pools.

Systems Architecting of Organizations: Why Eagles Can't Swim

Abstract: The most difficult questions facing organizations today do not have scientifically or mathematically provable solutions Many answers that do exist depend upon time and circumstance Systems Architecting of Organizations: Why Eagles Can't Swim tackles a very difficult dilemma: how do even highly respected organizations maintain their vaunted excellence, accommodate the new world of global communications, transportation, economics and multinational security, and still survive against stiff competition already in place? As they are finding out, depending upon the circumstances, the demands of excellence on the one hand, and of change on the other, can be cruelly irreconcilable This book does not just describe business strengths and weaknesses First, it identifies potential weaknesses, then offers guidelines and insights to address them Its approach is architectural and heuristic Second, this book is about maintaining success in a dynamic world, not about achieving it in a static one; few are clear on what to do and not to do in the face of major change Systems Architecting of Organizations: Why Eagles Can't Swim helps professionals gain new perspectives when reviewing their own organizations and to see problems and opportunities previously not apparent Features

An adaptive choice model of the internationalization process

Abstract: Stage models have benefited global managers by seeing internationalization as an evolutionary and learning process that involved making careful and incremental changes. What the stage models lack, however, are specification of internal problems and hurdles that managers will face during this organizational change process. We attempted to fill this knowledge gap by exploring types of managerial dilemmas that organizations will confront as they internationalize. This adaptive choice process of internationalization was discussed in this paper through the case of a domestic company during its overseas expansion. Our research shows that the internationalization process often creates managerial dilemmas for organizations in terms of strategic, structural, and human resource changes. There are also strong interactions among these dilemmas such that the decision regarding one dilemma may often impact how other dilemmas can be resolved Firms that are able to resolve these dilemmas, while considering their interactions, can become more successful in their internationalization process. These findings were developed into propositions regarding how companies can manage the process of internationalization more successfully. We also addressed specifically how the adaptive choice model would complement the stage models and enrich our understanding of the corporate internationalization process.

Constructions of Cultural Identity: Multiculturalism and Exclusion

Abstract: The article identifies a core dilemma in the debate on multiculturalism: although the politics of recognition aims at including cultural groups within the political community, it may inevitably have exclusive effects of its own. This dilemma is illuminated by an investigation of the attempts by Charles Taylor, Bhikhu Parekh and Will Kymlicka to develop a theory of multiculturalism. Using a typology of multiculturalist approaches, the paper identifies the exclusive consequences of each theory. Rather than seek an alternative non-exclusive politics of recognition, it argues for an approach that distinguishes between situations of multiculturalism.

Loyalty Dilemmas and Market Reform: Party-Union Alliances under Stress in Mexico, Spain, and Venezuela

Abstract: Market reform has dealt a serious blow to traditional alliances between governing parties and labor unions. This article examines the fate of these alliances by applying a revised version of Albert Hirschman's schema of exit, voice, and loyalty to party-union relations in Mexico, Spain, and Venezuela. After refining the concept of loyalty, the author argues that it is embedded in the principles and norms on which these alliances are based. Market reform places party-affiliated labor leaders in a "loyalty dilemma" in which they have no choice but to behave disloyally toward one set of claimants. Their propensity to respond with either voice or exit depends on their vulnerability to reprisals for disloyal behavior and the party's capacity to retain their loyalty even in the face of sacrifices imposed on workers and unions. Both variables are linked to the authority structures in which labor and party leaders find themselves. In the short to medium run the alliances most likely to survive are those in which labor leaders have significant autonomy from their bases and/or in which the party is able and willing to challenge its own executive. In the long run, however, even these alliances may be vulnerable to collapse because of popular frustrations with the inadequacy of interest representation and the multiple pressures on political organizations to adapt to a more fluid and uncertain environment.