Showing papers on "Dilemma published in 2003"
Book•
03 Feb 2003
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore the geography of the outcome patterns and explore the geographical location of the situations. But their focus is on the interaction conditions and person factors, and not the outcome pattern itself.
Abstract: Foreword Part I. Introduction and Theory: 1. Interpersonal situations: the context of social behavior 2. Outcome interdependence 3. Interaction conditions and person factors 4. Exploring the geography of the outcome patterns Part II The Situations: Preface to the Entries for the Situations Single Component Patterns: 1. Independence: we go our separate ways 2. Mutual partner control: I scratch your back, you scratch mine 3. Corresponding mutual joint control: getting in sync 4. Conflicting mutual joint control: match or mismatch Two- and three-component patterns: 5. The prisoner's dilemma: me versus we 6. Threat: trading loyalty for justice 7. Chicken: death before dishonor 8. Hero: let's do it your way 9. Conjunctive problems: together we can do it 10. Disjunctive problems: either of us can do it 11. Asymmetric dependence: you're the boss Time-extended patterns: 12. Iterated prisoner's dilemma: united we stand, divided we fall 13. Investment: building for the future 14. Delay of gratification: resisting temptation Incomplete information situations 15. Negotiation: can we agree on a deal? 16. Encounters with strangers: lack of information about a partner 17. Joint decisions under uncertainty: bird in the hand 18. Twists of fate: coping with an uncertain future N-person Situations 19. Third parties: effects of an outsider 20. N-person prisoner's dilemma: tragedy of the commons Movement from one situation to another 21. Movement among situations: where do we go from here? Part III. Epilogue.
523 citations
TL;DR: This paper presented a discursive and rhetorical analysis of letters written to British national newspapers by members of the public, and found that Asylum-seekers find themselves [re]positioned and contrasted with a variety of other social groups in such a way as to justify disregarding some of the central tenets o...
Abstract: A succession of well-publicized incidents in Britain, and elsewhere, has highlighted the dilemma of refugees and seekers of asylum. A number of desperate human tragedies allied to some very dubious institutional practices and decisions have been a cause for concern. Drawing upon that vast corpus of information we call `common knowledge', together with other more exclusive sources of knowledge, British national newspapers and their readers, among others, are involved in the social construction of asylum-seekers. Ideas of citizenship, identity and Nation-hood are employed within a variety of discursive and rhetorical strategies that form part of an `elite' discourse, one that contributes to a `new Apartheid'. This article presents a discursive and rhetorical analysis of letters written to British national newspapers by members of the public. Asylum-seekers find themselves [re]positioned and contrasted with a variety of other social groups in such a way as to justify disregarding some of the central tenets o...
333 citations
TL;DR: The authors discusses Chinese corporate governance in this narrow sense, and attempts to explain some perplexing features of its discourse, laws, and institutions (abbreviated hereinafter as "corporate governance laws and institutions" or CGLI).
Abstract: NOTE: A Chinese translation of this paper is available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1429722.Corporate governance (gongsi zhili) is a concept whose time seems definitely to have come in China. Chinese definitions of corporate governance in the abstract tend to cover the system regulating relationships among all parties with interests in a business organization, usually spelling out shareholders as a particularly important group. But Chinese corporate governance discourse in practice focuses almost exclusively on agency problems, and within only two types of firms: state-owned enterprises (SOEs), particularly after their transformation into one of the corporate forms provided for under the Company Law, and listed companies, which must be companies limited by shares (CLS) under the Company Law. This article discusses Chinese corporate governance in this narrow sense, and attempts to explain some perplexing features of its discourse, laws, and institutions (abbreviated hereinafter as "corporate governance laws and institutions" or CGLI).A fundamental dilemma of Chinese CGLI stems from the state policy of maintaining a full or controlling ownership interest in enterprises in several sectors. The state wants the enterprises it owns to be run efficiently, but not solely for the purpose of wealth maximization. A necessary element of state control of an enterprise is the use of that control for purposes such as the maintenance of urban employment levels, direct control over sensitive industries, or politically-motivated job placement.This in turn creates several problems. First, many of these goals are not easily measured and there is no obvious way of balancing them one against the other. This creates monitoring difficulties. Second, the policy of continued state involvement sets up a conflict of interest between the state as controlling shareholder and other shareholders. In using its control for purposes other than value maximization, the state exploits minority shareholders who have no other way to benefit from their investment.The major theme of this article is that the state wants to make SOEs operate more efficiently by subjecting them to a new and different set of rules - the rules of organization under the "modern enterprise system". Policymakers then find, however, that they must change and adjust the rules to take account of continuing state ownership. Moreover, the need to provide for the special circumstances of state-sector enterprises ends up hijacking the entire Company Law, so that instead of state-sector enterprises being made more efficient by being forced to follow the rules for private-sector enterprises (the original ambition), potential private-sector enterprises are hamstrung by having to follow rules that make sense only in a heavily state-invested economy.
261 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used the example of Malaysia as a case study to illustrate the problems and opportunities which arise when the two come into contact, and made general observations about the difficulties of the relationship, and conflicts between religious practices and tourist demands are identified.
250 citations
01 Jun 2003-International Journal of Human-computer Studies \/ International Journal of Man-machine Studies
TL;DR: A methodological foundation is established for human-computer interaction researchers aiming to assess trust between people interacting via computer-mediated communication (CMC) technology by collecting a broader range of data and increased use of longitudinal studies.
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to establish a methodological foundation for human-computer interaction (HCI) researchers aiming to assess trust between people interacting via computer-mediated communication (CMC) technology. The most popular experimental paradigm currently employed by HCI researchers are social dilemma games based on the Prisoner's Dilemma (PD), a technique originating from economics. HCI researchers employing this experimental paradigm currently interpret the rate of cooperation--measured in the form of collective pay-off--as the level of trust the technology allows its users to develop. We argue that this interpretation is problematic, since the game's synchronous nature models only very specific trust situations. Furthermore, experiments that are based on PD games cannot model the complexity of how trust is formed in the real world, since they neglect factors such as ability and benevolence. In conclusion, we recommend (a) means of improving social dilemma experiments by using asynchronous Trust Games, (b) collecting a broader range of data (in particular qualitative) and (c) increased use of longitudinal studies.
187 citations
TL;DR: The place of ABSS in relation to other research methods such asmathematical analysis is explored, to familiarise artificial intelligence researchers with a body of relevant multidisciplinary work, and to suggest directions for future ABSS research on social dilemmas.
Abstract: This review discusses agent-based social simulation (ABSS) in relation to the study of social dilemmas such as the Prisoner's Dilemma and Tragedy of the Commons. Its aims are to explore the place of ABSS in relation to other research methods such as mathematical analysis, to familiarise artificial intelligence researchers (particularly those working on multi-agent systems) with a body of relevant multidisciplinary work, and to suggest directions for future ABSS research on social dilemmas.
ABSS research can contribute greatly to the understanding of social phenomena, but needs to be based on a clear appreciation of the current `state of play' in the areas where it is used. With regard to `thin' (simple, general) simulation models, this primarily means attending to what has been or could be discovered by mathematical analysis, to work using other forms of simulation, and to the relevant theoretical disputes; with regard to `thick' (specific, detailed) models (about which the paper has less to say), linking to the relevant `thin' models and to the empirical evidence. The bulk of ABSS work on social dilemmas has been concentrated in quite a narrow – though certainly significant – area (reciprocal altruism in the Prisoner's Dilemma), and has sometimes been seriously flawed by over-ambitious claims, and insufficient attention to analytical approaches – although this same work has been very fertile in terms of inspiring further work, both analytical and simulation-based.
171 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that what people ask is not a generic mobility, but rather opportunities to participate in spatially disjointed activities and define accessibility as the amount and the diversity of "spatial opportunities" that can be reached within a certain amount of time.
Abstract: The fundamental dilemma in attempts to make urban development less dependent upon mobility by car is the inability of alternatives to match the quality of accessibility provided by private motorized transport. Failure to recognize this means that bringing about environmentally more sustainable urban mobility patterns is only possible at economic, social, and political costs that are unacceptable in most societies. In this paper we identify and discuss ways out of this dilemma, in the form of solutions that pursue the goal of increasing both sustainability and accessibility. We start by contending that what people ask is not a generic mobility, but rather opportunities to participate in spatially disjointed activities. Accordingly, accessibility should be defined as the amount and the diversity of ‘spatial opportunities’ that can be reached within a certain amount of time. Solutions to the accessibility–sustainability dilemma building upon this perspective (that is, planning concepts, policy measures) have...
147 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss three major dilemmas embedded in women's labor migration by focusing on undocumented Latina migrants in Israel and discuss the role of mothers who, to secure a better future for their children, are forced to leave them behind, thus subverting the traditional definition of motherhood.
Abstract: This article discusses three major dilemmas embedded in women's labor migration by focusing on undocumented Latina migrants in Israel. The first is that to break the cycle of blocked mobility in their homelands, migrant women must take jobs that they would have never taken in their countries of origin, despite uncertainty about possible economic outcomes. The second dilemma is that the search for economic betterment leads Latina migrants to risk living and working illegally in the host country, forcing them to remain on the margins of society. The third dilemma relates to the role of mothers who, to secure a better future for their children, are forced to leave them behind, thus subverting the traditional definition of motherhood. The absence of an egalitarian notion and the practice of citizenship for non-Jews leave undocumented labor migrants in Israel without prospects for incorporation into the society.
140 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe how ex-convicts manage their deviant identities in the labor market and how they choose to present themselves to others, using cultural scripts to provide models of presentation of self.
Abstract: Drawing on in-depth interviews with male parolees, this study describes how ex-convicts manage their deviant identities in the labor market. Institutional limitations imposed by both the labor market and the criminal justice system as well as subjects' interpretations of stigma play important roles in determining how they choose to present themselves to others. In understanding and constructing their post-imprisonment identities, former prisoners draw upon cultural scripts to provide models of presentation of self.
118 citations
Book•
09 Oct 2003
TL;DR: The legal profession in English politics as discussed by the authors has been studied extensively in the last few decades, including the legal profession's role in the formation of the UK's legal profession, and its role in legal professionalism.
Abstract: 1. The Legal Profession in English Politics 2. An Unlikely Revolutionary 3. Halting the Tide 4. Reflecting Society? 5. Defending the Temple 6. Controlling Competition 7. Conservatives Cut Legal Aid Costs 8. Labour Ends Legal Aid As We Know It 9. Serving Two Masters: The Dilemma of Self-Regulation 10. Governing a Fractious Profession 11. The Future of Legal Professionalism
105 citations
TL;DR: This paper investigated whether national institutional context is associated with differences in auditors' moral reasoning by examining three components of auditor's moral decision process: moral development, cognitive moral capability, and deliberative reasoning of how a realistic accounting dilemma will be resolved.
Abstract: This paper compares the moral reasoning of 363 auditors from Canada and the United States. We investigate whether national institutional context is associated with differences in auditors' moral reasoning by examining three components of auditors' moral decision process: (1) moral development, which describes cognitive moral capability, (2) prescriptive reasoning of how a realistic accounting dilemma ought to be resolved and, (3) deliberative reasoning of how a realistic accounting dilemma will be resolved. Not surprisingly, it appears that institutional factors are more likely to be associated with auditors' deliberative reasoning than their prescriptive reasoning in both countries. Additionally, our findings suggest that the national institutional context found in the United States, which has a tougher regulatory and more litigious environment, appears to better encourage auditors to deliberate according to what they perceive is "the ideal" judgment as compared to the Canadian context. We then discuss the implications of these findings for regulators and for ethics research.
TL;DR: In this article, a series of hypotheses about the conditions under which sex affects cooperation are proposed and tested against the results of two new studies, and the results from both studies support two of the three hypotheses.
Abstract: Results from previous studies have led many researchers to conclude that sex has no effect on cooperation in social dilemmas. This article reconciles strong theoretical expectations of sex differences in cooperation with the dearth of empirical evidence for such differences. I show that several theories of sex- or gender-related behavior suggest we should expect males and females to respond more strongly to greed and fear, respectively, in social dilemmas. I argue that previous research has failed to find differences because researchers have consistently used the Prisoner's Dilemma game (or its public goods variants) to investigate whether sex affects cooperation. Because Prisoner's Dilemma contains both fear and greed, the theories outlined in this article predict no sex differences in cooperation in Prisoner's Dilemma. A series of hypotheses about the conditions under which sex affects cooperation are proposed and tested against the results of two new studies. Results from both studies support two of the three hypotheses. I conclude by discussing some implications of the findings for collective action and inequality and by suggesting directions for future research.
Book•
01 Apr 2003
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a detailed explanation of effective royalty rate, savings index, and entitlement index for a petroleum fiscal system, and provide an analysis of example fiscal systems.
Abstract: Exploration economic modeling-""How to"" and things to look for State-of-the-art in petroleum fiscal system analysis Government take-strengths and weaknesses Detailed explanation of effective royalty rate, savings index, and entitlement index Alignment of interests between governments and oil companies Booking barrels Insights into the competitive bidding dilemma Value of reserves in the ground Gas development options Summary and analysis of example fiscal systems Detailed glossary Index.
TL;DR: For example, the authors argues that organizational behavior (OB) instructors often face a dilemma: OB acumen is widely and increasingly regarded as crucial to the ultimate organizational success of their students, yet many instructor...
Abstract: Organizational behavior (OB) instructors often face a dilemma: OB acumen is widely and increasingly regarded as crucial to the ultimate organizational success of their students, yet many instructor...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the effectiveness of leadership in influencing cooperation in social dilemmas by focusing on the procedural fairness and favorability of leaders' outcome decisions, and found that procedural fairness influenced contributions in a public good dilemma only if outcomes were unfavorable (i.e., participants received less than an equal share).
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01 Jun 2003
TL;DR: Men face a dilemma between having to show they “don’t care” about health issues as part of ‘macho’ performance, and realising they ‘should care’ about health problems as ‘good’ citizens.
Abstract: Key Points:
1) Men face a dilemma between having to show they “don’t care” about health issues as part of ‘macho’ performance, and realising they “should care” about health issues as ‘good’ citizens.
2) Men use a variety of ways to resolve this dilemma and legitimise ‘healthy’ behaviour or engaging with health services
3) Considering this dilemma and possible resolutions creates practical opportunities for health work with men.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that sometimes women may feel better off colluding with gendered structures that ensure their continued subordination rather than seeking approaches that will allow them to break free of this.
Abstract: A major dilemma in Gender and Development (GAD) work is why it is that sometimes women may feel better off colluding with gendered structures that ensure their continued subordination rather than seeking approaches that will allow them to break free of this. Kandiyoti (1988 Gender and Society 2 274-90) has identified this apparent collusion as 'patriarchal bargains', which offer women greater advantages than they perceive can be achieved by challenging the prevailing order. Such women are therefore reluctant to engage in empowering activities that may challenge their gendered bargain. This paper explains this dilemma in the context of GAD work undertaken with Bedouin women in Southern Egypt.
TL;DR: The main thesis of as mentioned in this paper is that being recognized as traditional or indigenous requires the employment of modern means, and that the entire debate is the expression of a dilemma that has no solution but is actually an expression of modernity.
Abstract: The main thesis of this essay is that being recognized as traditional or indigenous requires the employment of modern means. A form of ‘Bureaucratic Orientalism’ has been devised, constructing and reaffirming ‘the Other’ through the minutiae of administrative procedures and contemporary representational processes. These procedures exist for the twin purposes of establishing the right to act as an indigenous group, and of circumscribing the obligations of the state, and possibly of other institutions of governance. The entire debate is the expression of a dilemma that has no solution but is actually an expression of modernity. The three pillars upon which indigeneity is affirmed are a national (internationally legitimized) legal system, the contemporary world of NGOs, and the institutions of local government. Thus, through the very process of being recognized as ‘indigenous’, these groups enter the realms of modernity. The Philippines provide a case study for these explorations.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors summarize major environmental problems with their social and economic implications and compose some essential psychological reasoning about them, including the commons dilemma model, different behavioral processes and strategies of behavior change, and various aspects of human quality of life (QoL).
Abstract: With our biosphere steadily degrading, a solid psychological perspective on environmental, social, and economic (un)sustainability is urgently needed. This should supplement and strengthen biological, technological, and economic perspectives. After discussing positivistic and constructive psychology, we summarize major environmental problems with their social and economic implications. We also compose some essential psychological reasoning about them, including the commons dilemma model, different behavioral processes and strategies of behavior change, and various aspects of human quality of life (QoL). Psychologists can help analyze and mitigate the biggest sustainability problems: population growth, resource-intensive consumption, and harmful technologies-if their research is well-tuned to other environmental sciences, if the incentive structure for this work is improved, and if more attention is paid to the collective side of human behavior.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine some elements of the nation's policy on Indigenous education priorities (Department of Employment, Education and Training, 1989) and how they have framed our approaches to formal schooling issues over the past decade.
Abstract: This paper critically examines some elements of the nation's policy on Indigenous education priorities (Department of Employment, Education and Training, 1989) and how they have framed our approaches to formal schooling issues over the past decade. I draw on some of the 'cultural' tensions in the policy position to illustrate the dilemma they produce at the level of practice. I then reflect on the implications of these tensions for literacy teaching as well as ways that they can be addressed. The conclusion brings these reflections back to a more theoretical level to consider how shifts at the level of theory might re-frame how we might best view the literacy issues and priorities in Indigenous contexts.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors build on a number of ideas concerning the nature, management and representation in case studies, of moral issues and dilemmas as experienced by people in organisations.
Abstract: This paper builds on a number of ideas concerning the nature, management and representation in case studies, of moral issues and dilemmas as experienced by people in organisations. Drawing on some cases used in teaching business ethics, and utilising a checklist of questions derived from the more general theoretical analysis, suggestions are offered regarding the contributions which such cases can make in developing students' understanding and potential for performative competence in real life situations. The distinction between issues and dilemmas is emphasised, and different types of issue are identified. The status of self-interest as an issue, and as contributory to personal dilemmas, is given particular attention. The paper also addresses the distinction between cognitive and non-cognitive attributes required by individuals if they are to deal with such situations. Within the cognitive category attention is paid to the contribution of ethical and other theory, and to the need for moral imagination and judgement.
TL;DR: In assessing the role that organizations of scientists with publishing activities – such as scholarly societies – can or should play in furthering the science and practice in their chosen fields, they face a dilemma: should they be fund‐raising organizations for other activities in their disciplines, or be promoters of efficient scholarly communication.
Abstract: In assessing the role that organizations of scientists with publishing activities - such as scholarly societies - can or should play in furthering the science and practice in their chosen fields, they face a dilemma: should they primarily be fund-raising organizations for other activities in their disciplines, using their publications to bring in the necessary money, or should they be promoters of efficient scholarly communication and use their publications more directly to that end - for instance, by embracing 'open access'.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors address the predicament of the academic study of religions and direct the debate into more fruitful fields of research, such as fields of discourse, which make visible multiple perspectives on religious phenomena and allow for the description of longlasting traditions.
Abstract: This article addresses the predicament of the academic study of religions and directs the debate into more fruitful fields of research. After a brief account of the most important problems - identified as the "crisis of representation", the "situated observer", and the "dilemma of essentialism and relativism" - I argue that, in order to cope with these afflictions, we should scrutinize religions as systems of communication and action and not as systems of (unverifiable) belief. Not inner states of the mind or speculations about the transcendent are our issue, but the analysis of publicly communicated constructions. The term "fields of discourse" is introduced to denote both the coherence of these cultural arenas and the "recursive" involvement of scholars who are themselves actors in them. As a meta-theoretical instrument, the ideal type of "discourse" makes visible multiple perspectives on religious phenomena and - although the analysis' contingency and ethnocentricity is acknowledged - allows for the description of long-lasting traditions.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this paper, the increasing role of ICTs in African higher education, ongoing initiatives, progresses made, and the dilemmas and challenges are examined, with a focus on the transformation of higher education in general and research, teaching, and learning in particular.
Abstract: African higher education institutions are at a stage where they are striving to improve their information and communication technologies (ICTs) infrastructure, content, and skills; making resources available to meet the growing needs of students and faculty; and responding to the pressure for effectiveness. They are also confronted with a dilemma of turning ongoing ICTs initiatives into opportunities and understanding what ICTs mean to the transformation of higher education in general and to research, teaching, and learning in particular. This paper examines the increasing role of ICTs in African higher education, ongoing initiatives, progresses made, and the dilemmas and challenges.
02 Sep 2003
TL;DR: For example, the authors argues that the historical answer to Hobbes's dilemma at the internal level, constitutional government, is very different from that proposed by Hobbes, since it has been shown to be more successful than the alternative of anarchy or a "predatory state".
Abstract: Any coherent attempt to understand contemporary international relations must include an analysis of the impact of two factors: long-term tendencies toward globalization—the intensification of transnational as well as interstate relations—and the more immediate effects of the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union. Thomas Hobbesian monarchs had incentives to expand internal markets, since they would capture part of the gains from trade, but their time horizons were shorter than those of the states that they controlled; thus they had incentives to capture immediate gains at the expense of long-term growth, as the repeated defaults of the Hapsburg emperors on their debts illustrate. The historically successful answer to Hobbes's dilemma at the internal level—constitutional government—is very different from that proposed by Hobbes. Liberal thinkers have sought to resolve Hobbes's dilemma by building reliable representative institutions, with checks on the power of rulers, hence avoiding the dilemma of accepting either anarchy or a "predatory state.".
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore EU gender policy through the lens of the Wollstonecraft dilemma, a guiding conceptual device that helps to summarize women's difficult path towards equality in a patriarchal system.
Abstract: This article explores EU gender policy through the lens of the `Wollstonecraft dilemma', a guiding conceptual device that helps to summarize women's difficult path towards equality in a patriarchal system. EU gender policy reflects the contradictions women must face in their struggle for equality, which are common to most public gender policies. All provisions devised to progress in gender equality have negative retroactive effects on women, due to the patriarchal context in which they are applied. Empirical evidence from the Spanish case offers further support to the argument, showing how EU gender policy is still trapped in the `Wollstonecraft dilemma'. A more holistic approach to EU gender policy, able to tackle all the areas of which patriarchy is composed, and an improved monitoring of EU gender policy implementation in the member states, could both generate a more effective gender policy in the EU and make further progress in solving the dilemma.
TL;DR: The United States increasingly looks, walks, and talks like an empire and it should therefore heed the lessons of its predecessors, exercising strong and determined global leadership as discussed by the authors. But it must avoid the temptation to meddle when American interests are not at stake.
Abstract: The United States increasingly looks, walks, and talks like an empire. It should therefore heed the lessons of its predecessors, exercising strong and determined global leadership. At the same time, it must avoid the temptation to meddle when American interests are not at stake. This means, among other things, dropping the doctrine of universal democracy promotion.
Posted Content•
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate framing and coordination effects experimentally in prisoner's dilemma, "crowding" and coordination games, and they simulate a law by imposing a probabilistic penalty on one of the choices.
Abstract: Besides deterring people, laws may affect behavior by changing preferences or beliefs. A law may elicit intrinsic motivation by framing an act as wrong. Alternatively, it may coordinate the behavior of different people by changing their beliefs about what others will do. We investigate framing and coordination effects experimentally in prisoner's dilemma, "crowding" and coordination games. We simulate a law by imposing a probabilistic penalty on one of the choices. In the prisoner's dilemma and the crowding game, announcing the penalty had no effect. In the coordination game, announcing the penalty caused behavior to jump to the Pareto-superior equilibrium. Keywords: Equilibrium selection, framing, expressive law, experiments, coordination, prisoner's dilemma
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss their motivation to approach the preparation of preservice teachers from a critical multicultural perspective, their journey toward critical multiculturalism, and a reflection on the learning experiences, challenges, and dilemma associated with teaching from critical pedagogical stance.
Abstract: Preparing teachers for diversity is perceived as one of the challenges of teacher education in the 21st century. Among educators and researchers, teacher racial attitudes and beliefs about students from diverse sociocultural and linguistic backgrounds, especially low income and urban students, are the most compelling reason to prepare preservice teachers for diversity. In this article, I discuss my motivation to approach the preparation of preservice teachers from a critical multicultural perspective, my journey toward critical multiculturalism, and a reflection on the learning experiences, challenges, and dilemma associated with teaching from a critical pedagogical stance.