Showing papers on "East Asia published in 1998"
01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: This paper pointed out that the failure of a loan usually represents miscalculations on both sides of the transaction or distortions in the lending process itself, which is odd, since a loan agreement invariably has two parties.
Abstract: "HISTORY," JAWAHARLAL NEHRU famously observed, "is almost always written by the victors. " I Financial history, it seems, is written by the creditors. When a financial crisis arises, it is the debtors who are asked to take the blame. This is odd, since a loan agreement invariably has two parties. The failure of a loan usually represents miscalculations on both sides of the transaction or distortions in the lending process itself. The East Asian financial crisis has so far been true to form. As soon as the crisis hit in mid-1997, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which led the official international response, assigned primary responsibility to the shortcomings of East Asian capitalism, in particular, the East Asian financial markets. The IMF's principal strategy for the three countries hardest hit-Indonesia, Korea, and Thailand-was to overhaul their financial systems. The basic diagnosis was that East Asia had exposed itself to financial chaos because its financial systems were riddled by insider dealing, corruption, and weak corporate governance,
1,545 citations
01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: The recent East Asian crisis is only the latest in a series of spectacular economic catastrophes in developing countries as discussed by the authors, which has led to full-blown economic crises, in many cases with GDP contractions of 5 to 12 percent in the first year and negative or only slightly positive growth for several years after.
Abstract: THE EAST ASIAN crisis is only the latest in a series of spectacular economic catastrophes in developing countries. In the past twenty years at least ten countries have suffered from the simultaneous onset of currency crises and banking crises. This has led to full-blown economic crises, in many cases with GDP contractions of 5 to 12 percent in the first year and negative or only slightly positive growth for several years after. Many other countries have experienced contractions of similar magnitude following currency or banking crises. Financial crises are not strictly exogenous; in many cases the slowdown itself, or the very factors that led to it, have helped to cause a financial crisis. But there is no doubt that the standard features of financial crises, including overshooting exchange rates, withdrawal of foreign capital, failure to roll over short-term debts, internal credit crunches, and the process of disintermediation have also been important. Crises are also becoming increasingly frequent, at least relative to the post-World War II period. There has been, in Gerard Caprio's memorable phrase, a "boom in bust[s]."' Caprio and Daniela Klinge-
1,052 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors show that East Asia's demographic transition resulted in its working age population growing at a much faster rate than its dependent population during 1965-90, thereby expanding the per capita productive capacity of East Asian economies.
Abstract: The demographic transition a change from high to low rates of mortality and fertility has been more dramatic in East Asia during the twentieth century than in any other region or historical period. By introducing demographic variables into an empirical model of economic growth, this article shows that this transition has contributed substantially to East Asia's so called economic miracle. The miracle occurred in part because East Asia's demographic transition resulted in its working age population growing at a much faster rate than its dependent population during 1965-90, thereby expanding the per capita productive capacity of East Asian economies. This effect was not inevitable; rather, it occurred because East Asian countries had social, economic, and political institutions and policies that allowed them to realize the growth potential created by the transition. The empirical analyses indicate that population growth has a purely transitional effect on economic growth; this effect operates only when the dependent and working age populations are growing at different rates. These results imply that future demographic change will tend to depress growth rates in East Asia, while it will promote more rapid economic growth in Southeast and South Asia.
1,024 citations
Book•
31 Jul 1998
TL;DR: The rise of the West in world economic and demographic terms that relate it in a single historical sweep to the decline of the East around 1800 was discussed by Frank as mentioned in this paper, who pointed out that the European states used the silver extracted from the American colonies to buy entry into an expanding Asian market that already flourished in the global economy.
Abstract: Andre Gunder Frank asks us to re-orient our views away from Eurocentrism - to see the rise of the West as a mere blip in what was, and is again becoming, an Asia-centered world. In a bold challenge to received historiography and social theory he turns on its head the world according to Marx, Weber, and other theorists, including Polanyi, Rostow, Braudel, and Wallerstein. Frank explains the Rise of the West in world economic and demographic terms that relate it in a single historical sweep to the decline of the East around 1800. European states, he says, used the silver extracted from the American colonies to buy entry into an expanding Asian market that already flourished in the global economy. Resorting to import substitution and export promotion in the world market, they became Newly Industrializing Economies and tipped the global economic balance to the West. That is precisely what East Asia is doing today, Frank points out, to recover its traditional dominance. As a result, the 'center' of the world economy is once again moving to the 'Middle Kingdom' of China. Anyone interested in Asia, in world systems and world economic and social history, in international relations, and in comparative area studies, will have to take into account Frank's exciting reassessment of our global economic past and future.
933 citations
TL;DR: Genetic evidence does not support an independent origin of Homo sapiens in China, and it is more likely that ancestors of the populations currently residing in East Asia entered from Southeast Asia.
Abstract: Despite the fact that the continuity of morphology of fossil specimens of modern humans found in China has repeatedly challenged the Out-of-Africa hypothesis, Chinese populations are underrepresented in genetic studies. Genetic profiles of 28 populations sampled in China supported the distinction between southern and northern populations, while the latter are biphyletic. Linguistic boundaries are often transgressed across language families studied, reflecting substantial gene flow between populations. Nevertheless, genetic evidence does not support an independent origin of Homo sapiens in China. The phylogeny also suggested that it is more likely that ancestors of the populations currently residing in East Asia entered from Southeast Asia.
358 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider the East Asian financial crisis as reflecting two familiar patterns: the crisis tendencies of unregulated capitalist markets in which speculative excess is part of the very nature of the system and the opportunity for stronger capitalists to profit from the problems of those unable to withstand the downturn.
Abstract: The Asian financial meltdown, when it reached front-page proportions in late 1997, was rightly called the most serious of any we have had since the 1930s. A mountain of paper assets—estimated at more than a trillion dollars—was swept aside. Subsequently there was substantial recovery in some of the region's markets and investors sorted out specific strengths and weaknesses, differentiating among national economies . There have also been new frights caused by basic weaknesses in China and Japan. This paper considers the East Asian financial crisis as reflecting two familiar patterns. The first is the crisis tendencies of unregulated capitalist markets in which speculative excess is part of the very nature of the system. The second is the way such crises are the opportunity for stronger capitalists to profit from the problems of those unable to withstand the downturn.This article can also be found at the Monthly Review website, where most recent articles are published in full.Click here to purchase a PDF version of this article at the Monthly Review website.
283 citations
TL;DR: The essays in "Formations of Colonial Modernity in East Asia" as discussed by the authors challenge the idea that notions of modernity and colonialism are mere imports from the West, and show how colonial modernity has evolved from and into unique forms throughout Asia.
Abstract: The essays in "Formations of Colonial Modernity in East Asia" challenge the idea that notions of modernity and colonialism are mere imports from the West, and show how colonial modernity has evolved from and into unique forms throughout Asia. Although the modernity of non-European colonies is as indisputable as the colonial core of European modernity, until recently East Asian scholarship has tried to view Asian colonialism through the paradigm of colonial India (for instance), failing to recognise anti-imperialist nationalist impulses within differing Asian countries and regions. Demonstrating an impatience with social science models of knowledge, the contributors show that binary categories focused on during the Cold War are no longer central to the project of history writing.By bringing together articles previously published in the journal positions: east Asia cultures critique, editor Tani Barlow has demonstrated how scholars construct identity and history, providing cultural critics with new ways to think about these concepts - in the context of Asia and beyond. The chapters address topics such as the making of imperial subjects in Okinawa, politics and the body social in colonial Hong Kong, and the discourse of decolonisation and popular memory in South Korea. This is an invaluable collection for students and scholars of Asian studies, postcolonial studies, and anthropology. The contributors include: Charles K. Armstrong, Tani E. Barlow, Fred Y. L. Chiu, Chungmoo Choi, Alan S. Christy, Craig Clunas, James A. Fujii, James L. Hevia, Charles Shiro Inouye, Lydia H. Liu, Miriam Silverberg, Tomiyama Ichiro, and, Wang Hui.
256 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the idea of transferable lessons is understood as an invitation to indigenous innovation that takes advantage of the underlying analytical logic of East Asian institutions, other countries can reap important benefits from East Asia's experience.
Abstract: Competing theories of East Asian economic policy share the assumption that a highly capable, coherent economic bureaucracy, closely connected to, but still independent of, the business community, has been an essential institutional prerequisite for successful policy formation and implementation. In East Asia these institutional prerequisites were constructed in a variety of concrete forms with great difficulty and imperfect results. As long as the idea of ‘transferable lessons’ is understood as an invitation to indigenous innovation that takes advantage of the underlying analytical logic of East Asian institutions, other countries can reap important benefits from East Asia's experience.
182 citations
TL;DR: The homeland of domesticated rice has been proposed as: 1 a specific area, such as India (Vavilov 1926; Ramiah & Ghose 1951), South China (Ding 1957), Southeast Asia (Spencer 1963), and the Yangtze valley in China (Yan 1982; 1989) as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Rice, Oryza sativa L., is one of the most important cereal crops in the world, and its emergence as a domesticated subsistence plant drives much of the interest and research in archaeology in South and East Asia. The homeland of domesticated rice has been proposed as: 1 a specific area, such as India (Vavilov 1926; Ramiah & Ghose 1951), South China (Ding 1957), Southeast Asia (Spencer 1963) and the Yangtze valley in China (Yan 1982; 1989) 2 a biogeographic region, such as the so-called ‘belt region’ with a great diversity of Oryza species (Chang 1976), or 3 an ecological zone, such as coastal swamp habitats (Higham 1995).
170 citations
TL;DR: Panel data from three waves of the China Health and Nutrition Survey confirm that no single one-child policy exists; policy varied considerably from place to place and within individual communities during the 1989-93 period.
Abstract: Of all the reforms and policies set in motion in the early 1980s in China, the one-child policy has been called the most far-reaching in its implications for China's population and economic development. Almost two decades later, little is known about what the policy looks like across local neighborhoods and villages. To sketch a more general picture of the one-child policy, this article presents panel data from three waves of the China Health and Nutrition Survey (1989, 1991, and 1993) collected in 167 communities in eight provinces. Local policy, including policy strength and policy incentives and disincentives, is detailed separately for urban and rural areas. These data confirm that no single one-child policy exists; policy varied considerably from place to place and within individual communities during the 1989-93 period.
147 citations
TL;DR: Most economists would agree that there are major lessons to be drawn for other countries from East Asia's growth experience as mentioned in this paper. But what these lessons are remains subject to considerable debate and there is some convergence of views on the proposition that, whatever the economic merits of industrial policy, the institutional context in which interventions were carried out in East Asia resulted in fewer by-product distortions than might otherwise have been the case.
Abstract: Most economists would agree that there are major lessons to be drawn for other countries from East Asia’s growth experience. But what these lessons are remains subject to considerable debate. The role of macroeconomic stability and human resources is uncontroversial. The contributions — positive or negative — made by industrial policy, and by government interventions more broadly, are hotly contested. Even there, however, there is some convergence of views on the proposition that, whatever the economic merits of industrial policy, the institutional context in which interventions were carried out in East Asia resulted in fewer by-product distortions than might otherwise have been the case.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors consider the institutions and policies which were used to manage economic rents in support of rapid growth and to ensure a more strategic and orderly integration into the world economy and examine the contribution of regional trade and investment flows to East Asian industrialisation.
Abstract: Conventional explanations of rapid growth in East Asia have focused on the efficient allocation of resources resulting from market‐led outward‐oriented strategies This study challenges that approach East Asian success has centred around the accumulation dynamic both because of its direct importance to the growth process and also because of its close and interdependent linkages with exports On this basis the study considers the institutions and policies which were used to manage economic rents in support of rapid growth and to ensure a more strategic and orderly integration into the world economy The study also examines the contribution of regional trade and investment flows to East Asian industrialisation The potential for replicating similar strategies is considered
TL;DR: For example, the authors pointed out that even the continuing US trade deficits with Asia of well over $100 billion are considered good news because cheap imports will keep down inflation and prevent a global collapse of demand and another Great Depression.
Abstract: Since mid 1997, Americans have been told that the Asian economic model is obsolete and that the meltdown in East Asia will not affect them, their jobs, or the American stockmarket. Even the continuing US trade deficits with Asia of well over $100 billion are considered good news because cheap imports will keep down inflation. But what was and still is at risk in East Asia is the real possibility of a global collapse of demand and another Great Depression. Even if that does not happen, America’s system of rich satellites serving as hosts to an expeditionary force of some 100,000 US troops is virtually certain to come to an end.
TL;DR: The effect of globalization on industrial relations procedures and substantive outcomes is contingent as mentioned in this paper, and the extent and impact of globalization vary between countries, resulting in similar preoccupations by policymakers yet leading to variable responses and industrial relations outcomes.
Abstract: Globalization enhances competitiveness, both at the level of the firm and at the level of the nation. As observed in China, Malaysia, and Korea, this leads management and the state to adopt strategies designed to increase labor effectiveness to the benefit of capital. However, the effect of globalization on industrial relations procedures and substantive outcomes is contingent. Pressure for greater flexibility in the use of labor is ubiquitous, but the outcome is constrained by cultural norms valuing hierarchy and security. State strategies vary by historical circumstance, resource endowments, and internal political dynamics, including the influence of trade unions. While Malaysian industrial relations is heavily constrained by the discipline of high exposure to international capital, in China and Korea, major struggles are shaping the future of workplace and national labor market governance. Thus the extent and impact of globalization vary between countries, resulting in similar preoccupations by policymakers yet leading to variable responses and industrial relations outcomes.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors show that the state role in housing is influenced by the nature of the political coalition the state has established with other social groups to promote economic growth in South Korea and Singapore.
Abstract: A statist perspective holds that the autonomous state has enabled East Asian NICs, notably South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, to achieve economic success. I challenge this perspective by showing that sociopolitical rela- tions between the state and other social actors have deeply affected state actions in housing development in South Korea and Singapore. I demonstrate that the state role in housing is influenced by the nature of the political coalition the state has established with other social groups to promote economic growth. In South Korea, an exclusive developmental coalition between the state and large capitalists forced the state to minimize its role in housing provision and severely reduced state auton- omy in controlling real estate speculation. In contrast, the state in Singapore has been proactive in providing public housing and controlling landownership on the basis of a balanced relation between growth and populist coalitions. This study sug- gests that the state role in national development needs to be understood in the con- text of political processes among social actors, such as political coalitions between the state and other social actors. The state can succeed in fostering social develop-
Posted Content•
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors systematically assess the validity of this influential and important thesis, and explore to what extent, if any, the so-called "Asian model" is responsible for the present crisis in countries like Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and Korea.
Abstract: With the economic crisis in East Asia and a continuing boom in the US, American triumphialism is in the air. The latter is perhaps not unexpected and probably does no harm. But
what is more questionable is the view held in the highest circles in the US Government and international financial organisations in Washington which causally links the so-called Asian model of capitalism to the economic and financial crisis which is currently engulfing the hitherto
highly successful economies of East and South East Asia. A central aim of this paper is to systematically assess the validity of this influential and important thesis, i.e., the paper will explore to what extent, if any, the so-called ‘Asian model’ is responsible for the present crisis in countries like Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and Korea. This question is also important in part because in economic terms until very recently this model seems to have been exceptionally successful.
Book•
01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: The Cultural Connection Japan China Korea and Southeast Asia The Arab World and Islam The Indian Subcontinent Mexico Russia Western Europe Sub-Saharan Africa Implications for Cross-Cultural Management Index as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The Cultural Connection Japan China Korea and Southeast Asia The Arab World and Islam The Indian Subcontinent Mexico Russia Western Europe Sub-Saharan Africa Implications for Cross-Cultural Management Index
01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used a database of 5,550 firms in nine countries over the period 1988-1996, and found large differences in performance and financial structures across East Asian countries.
Abstract: Using a database of 5,550 firms in nine countries over the period 1988-1996, we find large differences in performance and financial structures across East Asian countries. Profitability, as measured by real return on assets in local currency, was relatively low in Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, and Singapore throughout the period, while corporates in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand had high returns, on average twice higher than those recorded in Germany and the US. Nominal returns in dollars were high too, but reflected in part the real appreciation of currencies. In 1994-1996, measured performance declined in several countries, especially Japan and Korea. This did not show up as much in sales growth as investment rates were high and continued to drive output growth rates in many countries. The combination of high investment and relatively low profitability in some countries meant that much external financing was needed. As outside equity was used sparingly, leverage was high in most East Asian countries, also relative to other countries, and increasing in Korea, Malaysia and Thailand. Short-term borrowing became increasingly important, especially in Malaysia, Taiwan, and Thailand. Some of the vulnerabilities in corporate financial structures that have now become a very apparent factor in triggering and aggravating East Asia’s financial crisis, were thus already in existence in the early 1990s.
DOI•
01 Sep 1998
TL;DR: The authors surveys the literature on the growth performance of the east Asian economies in recent decades, evaluates the sustainability of that performance, and provides a preliminary assessment of their long-term growth prospects in the aftermath of the current crisis.
Abstract: This paper surveys the literature on the growth performance of the east Asian economies in recent decades, evaluates the sustainability of that performance, and provides a preliminary assessment of their long-term growth prospects in the aftermath of the current crisis. It highlights three special aspects of east Asian growth: unusually high factor accumulation, a favorable demographic transition, and the impact of rapid growth on financial and other institutions. The paper argues that there are downside risks to the east Asian “developmental state” model, despite its favorable attributes, and that an alternative model may become more attractive as these economies mature.
TL;DR: The East Asian countries have achieved a spectacular average rate of economic growth over the last 30 to 40 years, with very substantial diversification and economic development as discussed by the authors, which is no exaggeration to say that the post-WWII development of East Asia (including Japan)is the most successful story of sustained economic growth in the history of mankind.
Abstract: The East Asian countries have achieved a spectacular average rate of economic growth over the last 30 to 40 years, with very substantial diversification and economic development. Korea, for example, managed to transform itself from being a largely agricultural society in 1960 to the point where it became the third country after the US and Japan to export 256 K memory chips, developed by its own firms. It is no exaggeration to say that the post-WWII development of East Asia (including Japan)is the most successful story of sustained economic growth in the history of mankind.
How does one account for this extraordinary economic success?
TL;DR: The financial meltdown in East Asia in 1997-8 had dramatic effects not only on the countries of the region itself, but on the scholarly debates over the sources and limits of the East Asian Miracle model of development as well as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The financial meltdown in East Asia in 1997–8 had dramatic effects not only on the countries of the region itself, but on the scholarly debates over the sources and limits of the ‘East Asian Miracle’ model of development as well.1 The achievements of the fast-growing East Asian economies are not in question: as Joseph Stiglitz put it, the East Asian Miracle was real.2 But the methods used by the East Asians in constructing this miracle were cast in a pitiless spotlight through the financial chain-reactions of 1997, and, in many cases, were found wanting. Positions adopted before the crisis have thus had to be revised.
Book•
01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: The new political economy of development as discussed by the authors is a new political model of development, which is based on the GATT, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
Abstract: * Contents * 1. Introduction * 2. The new political economy of development * 3. Structural adjustment * 4. GATT, WTO and the world trade system * 5. The environment and structural adjustment * 6. The East Asian development experience * 7. A global overview: East and South East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and India * 8. Conclusions
Posted Content•
01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors systematically assess the validity of this influential and important thesis, and explore to what extent, if any, the so-called "Asian model" is responsible for the present crisis in countries like Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and Korea.
Abstract: With the economic crisis in East Asia and a continuing boom in the US, American triumphialism is in the air. The latter is perhaps not unexpected and probably does no harm. But what is more questionable is the view held in the highest circles in the US Government and international financial organisations in Washington which causally links the so-called Asian model of capitalism to the economic and financial crisis which is currently engulfing the hitherto highly successful economies of East and South East Asia. A central aim of this paper is to systematically assess the validity of this influential and important thesis, i.e., the paper will explore to what extent, if any, the so-called ‘Asian model’ is responsible for the present crisis in countries like Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and Korea. This question is also important in part because in economic terms until very recently this model seems to have been exceptionally successful.
TL;DR: The authors studied the evolution of Asian MNCs and found that state policy has been an important intervening variable in the growth and development of the local MNC, however, the patterns of firm growth differ from country to country and the strategic frames are embedded in the local political and cultural context.
Abstract: Western management theories on internationalization do not fully explain the evolution of Asian MNCs. In East Asia, state policy has been an important intervening variable in the growth and development of the local MNCs. However, the patterns of firm growth differ from country to country and the strategic frames are embedded in the local political and cultural context. The internationalization strategies adopted by firms in East Asia are best understood if viewed from a contextual perspective.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine the sources of agricultural stagnation/decreasing in Sub-Saharan Africa by contrasting it with the agricultural growth experience in Asia, and East Asia in particular.
Abstract: This chapter aims to examine the sources of agricultural stagnation/ deterioration in Sub-Saharan Africa by contrasting it with the agricultural growth experience in Asia, and East Asia in particular. An important and well-documented feature of the East Asian model of economic development is the considerable success of the countries concerned in expanding their agricultural sector. This success enabled them to provide more or less regular employment to a growing rural population before urban industrialization was advanced enough to absorb large numbers of workers (Fei, Ranis and Kuo, 1979; Morley, 1982, ch. 11). In the case of some countries (most notably, Japan and Taiwan), expansion of rural employment opportunities and incomes was greatly helped by a decentralized pattern of industrialization that resulted in the development of numerous rural industries (Smith, 1959; Ho, 1979). Moreover, since food supply increased rapidly, instead of being diverted to food imports, foreign exchange earnings could be reserved for importing capital and intermediate goods needed by modern industries.
Book•
31 Dec 1998
TL;DR: A volume of essays by leading North American and Asian scholars provides a comprehensive look at key themes relating to democracy in East Asia today as mentioned in this paper, exploring the "Asian values" debate, East Asia's democratic experience, the effort to consolidate East Asia new democracies, and prospects for democratic transitions among the region's remaining authoritarian regimes.
Abstract: Over the next few decades East Asia is likely to be the most critical arena in the global struggle for democracy. A region of remarkable diversity that has achieved unparalleled economic growth, East Asia is viewed as a model by many developing countries in other parts of the world. Though some of its most successful countries are democratic, East Asia is also home to nondemocratic regimes that can claim enviable records of both political stability and economic growth. Some of these regimes have helped to launch a global debate about whether "Asian values" conducive to growth and stability may be incompatible with Western-style liberal democracy. This volume of essays by leading North American and Asian scholars provides a comprehensive look at key themes relating to democracy in East Asia today. The contributors explore the "Asian values" debate, East Asia's democratic experience, the effort to consolidate East Asia's new democracies, and prospects for democratic transitions among the region's remaining authoritarian regimes. Contributors: Frederick Z. Brown, Chai-Anan Samudavanija, Joseph Chan, Yun-han Chu, Gerald L. Curtis, Wm. Theodore de Bary, Larry Diamond, Francis Fukuyama, Makoto Iokibe, Bilahari Kausikan, Byung-Kook Kim, R. William Liddle, Gordon P. Means, Margaret Ng, Tatsumi Okabe, Parichart Chotiya, Minxin Pei, Marc F. Plattner, Robert Scalapino.
TL;DR: In this article, satellite tracking of red-crowned cranes, Grus japonensis, from two continental east Asian sites were documented in detail by satellite tracking and two routes were identified: a 2200 km western route from Russia's Khingansky Nature Reserve to coastal Jiangsu Province, China; and a 900 km eastern route from Lake Khanka (Russia) to the Korean Peninsula and the Demilitarized Zone.
Abstract: Autumn migration routes of red-crowned cranes, Grus japonensis, from two continental east Asian sites were documented in detail by satellite tracking. Two routes were identified: a 2200 km western route from Russia’s Khingansky Nature Reserve to coastal Jiangsu Province, China; and a 900 km eastern route from Lake Khanka (Russia) to the Korean Peninsula and the Demilitarized Zone. The most important rest-sites were identified as Panjin Marsh (China), coastal mudflats south-east of Tangshan City (China), the Yellow River mouth (China), Tumen River mouth (North Korea/China/Russia), Kumya (North Korea) and Cholwon (Korean DMZ). Movements within the wintering range were also recorded, including complex commuting between sites by individual cranes and patterns of daily movements within sites. These data should prove useful for conservation of the flyway.