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Showing papers on "Electric power published in 1999"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper presents a comprehensive review of active filter configurations, control strategies, selection of components, other related economic and technical considerations, and their selection for specific applications.
Abstract: Active filtering of electric power has now become a mature technology for harmonic and reactive power compensation in two-wire (single phase), three-wire (three phase without neutral), and four-wire (three phase with neutral) AC power networks with nonlinear loads. This paper presents a comprehensive review of active filter (AF) configurations, control strategies, selection of components, other related economic and technical considerations, and their selection for specific applications. It is aimed at providing a broad perspective on the status of AF technology to researchers and application engineers dealing with power quality issues. A list of more than 200 research publications on the subject is also appended for a quick reference.

2,311 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose a framework for the analysis, design, and control of optimum hybrid vehicles within the context of energy and power flow analysis, which is one step toward the development of a complete toolbox for analysis and design of hybrid vehicles.
Abstract: Hybridizing automotive drivetrains, or using more than one type of energy converter, is considered an important step toward very low pollutant emission and high fuel economy. The automotive industry and governments in the United States, Europe, and Japan have formed strategic initiatives with the aim of cooperating in the development of new vehicle technologies. Efforts to meet fuel economy and exhaust emission targets have initiated major advances in hybrid drivetrain system components, including: high-efficiency high-specific power electric motors and controllers; load-leveling devices such as ultracapacitors and fly-wheels; hydrogen and direct-methanol fuel cells; direct injection diesel and Otto cycle engines; and advanced batteries. The design of hybrid electric vehicles is an excellent example of the need for mechatronic system analysis and design methods. If one is to fully realize the potential of using these technologies, a complete vehicle system approach for component selection and optimization over typical driving situations is required. The control problems that arise in connection with hybrid power trains are significant and pose additional challenges to power-train control engineers. The principal aim of the paper is to propose a framework for the analysis, design, and control of optimum hybrid vehicles within the context of energy and power flow analysis. The approaches and results presented in the paper are one step toward the development of a complete toolbox for the analysis and design of hybrid vehicles.

395 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide an overview of environmentally friendly applications of thermoelectric generation and assess its potential as an alternative source of electrical power. But, the use of waste heat as an energy source particularly at temperatures below 140C substantially increase the commercial competitiveness of this method of generating electrical power, and the results of a recent investigation of the performance of TEG systems powered by waste hot water indicate that electrical power can be produced by this method and at a price which matches that of conventional utilities.

375 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe how the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) commissioned an implementation and commercialization of a nonintrusive appliance load monitoring system (NIALMS) based on EPRI-developed intellectual property.
Abstract: The authors describe how the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) commissioned an implementation and commercialization of a nonintrusive appliance load monitoring system (NIALMS) based on EPRI-developed intellectual property. The system determines the energy consumption of individual appliances being turned on and off within a whole building's electric load.

213 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used analytical hierarchy process (AHP) methodology to perform a comparison between the different electricity power production options in Jordan, in addition to fossil fuel power plants, are nuclear, solar, wind, and hydro-power.

201 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a vector error correction model using peak and off-peak electricity spot prices during 1994-1996 covering 11 regional markets in the western United States and test these prices for evidence of market integration.

163 citations


Book
01 Jan 1999
TL;DR: The first € price and the £ and $ price are net prices, subject to local VAT, and the €(D) includes 7% for Germany, the€(A) includes 10% for Austria.
Abstract: The first € price and the £ and $ price are net prices, subject to local VAT. Prices indicated with * include VAT for books; the €(D) includes 7% for Germany, the €(A) includes 10% for Austria. Prices indicated with ** include VAT for electronic products; 19% for Germany, 20% for Austria. All prices exclusive of carriage charges. Prices and other details are subject to change without notice. All errors and omissions excepted. A. Monticelli State Estimation in Electric Power Systems

132 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, an electrically peaking hybrid electric (ELPH) propulsion system is developed that has a parallel configuration, where a small engine is used to supply power approximately equal to the average load power, along with the regenerative braking power, to maintain the battery state of charge (SOC) at a reasonable level.
Abstract: An electrically peaking hybrid electric (ELPH) propulsion system is being developed that has a parallel configuration. A small engine is used to supply power approximately equal to the average load power. The operation of the engine is managed by a vehicle controller and an engine controller such that the engine always operates with nearly full load-the optimal fuel economy operation. An induction motor is used to supply the peaking power required by the electrically peaking load. The motor can also absorb the excess power of the engine while the load power is less than the peak. This power, along with the regenerative braking power, can be used to charge the batteries on board to maintain the battery state-of-charge (SOC) at a reasonable level. With the electrically peaking principle, two control strategies for the drive train have been developed. One is called maximum battery SOC control strategy, by which the engine and electric motor are controlled so that the battery SOC is maintained at its top level as much as possible. This control strategy may be used in urban driving in which accelerating and decelerating driving is common and high-battery SOC is absolutely important for normal driving. The other control strategy is called engine turn-on and turn-off control by which the engine is controlled to operate in a turn-on and turn-off manner. This control strategy may be used in highway driving. Based on the ELPH principle and the drive train control strategies, a drive train for a full-size five-seat passenger car has been designed and verified using the V-ELPH computer simulation package.

121 citations


Patent
19 Nov 1999
TL;DR: A preferred embodiment of the electrical power system of the present invention includes a power conditioning unit which is configured to receive the DC electrical output signal to deliver an AC output signal in a grid-connected load.
Abstract: A preferred embodiment of the electrical power system of the present invention includes a power conditioning unit which is configured to receive the DC electrical output signal to deliver an AC output signal to a grid-connected load. Preferably, the power conditioning unit includes a controller which is configured to monitor the AC output signal so that the power conditioning unit may cease delivering the AC output signal when a characteristic of the AC output signal satisfies an established criterion.

114 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, simulated annealing is used to solve a power distribution phase balancing problem with its nonlinear effects, such as, voltage drops and energy losses, making the problem difficult to solve.
Abstract: Deregulation eliminates the boundary of the territory of the monopoly power industry. Competition forces utilities to improve power quality as well as to reduce investment and operation costs. Feeder imbalance describes a situation in which the voltages of a three-phase voltage source are not identical in magnitude, or the phase differences between them are not 120 electrical degrees, or both. It affects motors and other devices that depend upon a well-balanced three-phase voltage source. Phase balancing is to make the voltages balanced at each load point of the feeder. Phase swapping is a direct approach for phase balancing with the minimum cost. Phase balancing can enhance utilities' competitive capability by improving reliability, quality, and reducing costs. Therefore, phase balancing optimization is nowadays receiving more attention in the power industry, especially in today's deregulating environments. The nonlinear effects, such as, voltage drops and energy losses, make the problem difficult to solve. This paper introduces simulated annealing as an effective method to solve a power distribution phase balancing problem with its nonlinear effects.

112 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a thermoelectric power generator in silicon technology is used for the energy supply of low power systems and an application is described generating an electrical power of 1.5 μW with a temperature difference of 10°C.
Abstract: A thermoelectric power generator in silicon technology is used for the energy supply of low power systems. An application is described generating an electrical power of 1.5 μW with a temperature difference of 10°C. With the generated electrical power it is possible to operate a small preamplifier and a sensor control system. For complexer applications a generator with a power in the region of 20 μW would be desirable.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the environmental impact of electric power production through an Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) fired by dedicated energy crops (poplar Short Rotation Forestry (SRF)) is analyzed by a Life Cycle Assessment approach.

Patent
09 Nov 1999
TL;DR: In this paper, a hybrid battery system for an electric motor drive such as may be used in an electrically propelled vehicle incorporates the combination of a high power density battery and a high energy density battery to provide an optimal combination of high energy and high power.
Abstract: A power system for an electric motor drive such as may be used in an electrically propelled vehicle incorporates the combination of a high power density battery and a high energy density battery to provide an optimal combination of high energy and high power, i.e., a hybrid battery system. The hybrid battery system in one form includes components which prevent electrical recharge energy from being applied to the high energy density battery while capturing regenerative energy in the high power density battery so as to increase an electric vehicle's range for a given amount of stored energy. A dynamic retarding function for absorbing electrical regenerative energy is used during significant vehicle deceleration and while holding speed on down-hill grades, to minimize mechanical brake wear and limit excessive voltage on the battery and power electronic control devices. The high energy density battery coupled in circuit with a boost converter, a high power density battery, a dynamic retarder, and an AC motor drive circuit. The hybrid battery system is controlled by a hybrid power source controller which receives signals from a vehicle system controller using current and voltage sensors to provide feedback parameters for the closed-loop hybrid battery control functions.

Patent
19 Mar 1999
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a system for providing an automated, on-line forward market for the exchange and scheduling of electrical power and for the auctioning of fixed transmission rights (FTRs) on a power generation and distribution system.
Abstract: A system for providing an automated, on-line forward market for the exchange and scheduling of electrical power and for the auctioning of fixed transmission rights (FTRs) on a power generation and distribution system. The system provides an on-line interface to multiple, remotely located market participants who can offer to buy or sell energy for next-day scheduling. Settlement of scheduled transactions can be done on a day-ahead as well as on a real-time basis. Scheduled transactions can also be modified on an hour-ahead basis. The market participants can also take part in a monthly auction of FTRs. The market system operates in conjunction with the control facilities of the power system. Both the day-ahead market and the FTR auction are carried out by the system as part of a process which ensures the secure and efficient operation of the power system.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
16 May 1999
TL;DR: More electric cars (MEC) as discussed by the authors is the direction of automotive power system technology, which is the concept of More Electric Cars (more electric cars) as the future of automotive electrical systems.
Abstract: Increasing use of electrical power to drive automobile subsystems, which historically have been driven by a combination of mechanical, hydraulic, and electrical power transfer systems, is seen as a dominant trend in advanced automotive power systems. This is the concept of More Electric Cars (MEC). Advancements in the areas of power electronics, fault tolerant electrical power distribution systems, electric drives, control electronics, and microprocessors are already providing the impetus to improve the performance of automobile electrical systems and their reliability. As a result, the MEC concept is seen as the direction of automotive power system technology. This paper briefly discusses the conventional automotive power systems, their disadvantages, scope for improvement, future electric loads, and advanced distribution system architectures. Finally, it concludes with a brief outline of the advancement to be made in the future.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
05 Jul 1999
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors deal with the materials, structure, and corrosion-preventive engineering of the pump turbine for the seawater pumped-storage power plant in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan.
Abstract: Acquiring a pumped-storage power generation site utilizing river water recently faces several restrictions due to environmental assess- ment. On the other hand, there are many sites favorable for constructing a pumped-storage power plant utilizing seawater in Japan, which is surrounded by the sea. Seawater pumped-storage power plants have several advantages such as lower civil construction cost and lower power distribution cost due to their proximity to nuclear or steam turbine power plants. Seawater pump turbines are used under the condition where the corrosion environment is noticeably severe, rather than conventional river water pump turbines. In addition, pump turbines have many narrow spaces between parts and their major parts are embedded, so that it would be very difficult to apply proper corrosion prevention measures. This problem cannot be solved only by conventional corrosion-preventive engineering. The Agency of Natural Resources and Energy of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry entrusted Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. with the construction of the world's first seawater pumped-storage pilot plant in Kunigami Village in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, to execute verification tests for five years after the completion of construction in March, 1999. This paper will deal with materials, structure, and corrosion-preventive engineering of the pump turbine for the seawater pumped-storage power plant.

Patent
07 Apr 1999
TL;DR: In this paper, an electronic system for controlling power consumption at a user supplied with electric power from a power plant, consisting of a control unit (10) installed at the user and having a programmable memory (16) for storage of data for controlling the power consumption, parameter-sensing sensors (1, 2, 3,...) for the supply of input signals to the control unit, an electric meter (11) communicating with the main unit for measuring the total instantaneous consumption of the user, and means (4-6) for connection and disconnection of power-
Abstract: An electronic system for controlling power consumption at a user supplied with electric power from a power plant, comprises a control unit (10) installed at the user and having a programmable memory (16) for storage of data for controlling the power consumption, parameter-sensing sensors (1, 2, 3, ...) for the supply of input signals to the control unit, an electric meter (11) communicating with the main unit (10) for measuring the total instantaneous consumption of the user, and means (4-6) for connection and disconnection of power-consuming units under the control of the control unit (10). Further, a number of addressable function nodes (4, 5, 6) are connected between the main unit (10) and the various loads (12) and is in both-way communication with the main unit, and the main unit (10) is arranged to transmit addressed messages to the function nodes (4, 5, 6), so that only the nodes with the correct address receive the current messages and execute load-affecting actions based on the message content. The control unit is a main unit (10) having a memory (16) containing a program for controlling the power consumption based on an estimate of the instantaneous consumption as well as on a historical consumption pattern at the user, and the main unit further is arranged to distribute the power consumption by means of a random function distributing the connection of the power-consuming units (12) over a given time interval, the random function being independent of energy plants and other users.

Patent
Shotaro Naito1, Hiroshi Katada1
29 Sep 1999
TL;DR: In this paper, a system for driving a hybrid vehicle consisting of an engine, a motor/generator coupled to the engine, and a battery connected to the generator through an electric power converter is presented.
Abstract: A system for driving a hybrid vehicle comprising an engine; a motor/generator coupled to the engine; a battery connected to the motor/generator through an electric power converter; and a controller for controlling the engine and the motor/generator corresponding to driving condition of the vehicle, wherein the controller has a plurality of operating modes for controlling the engine and the motor/generator corresponding to an accelerator opening degree for operating the engine and a charge ratio of the battery, and the controller selects an engine running electric generating mode that the engine is operated as a driving source of the vehicle and the motor/generator and electric power generated by the motor/generator is recovered to the battery when the charge ratio is low; an acceleration mode that the engine and the motor/generator are operated as the driving source of the vehicle when the charge ratio of the battery is high, and the accelerator opening degree or a rate of change of the accelerator opening degree is large; and an engine running mode that only the engine is operated as the driving source of the vehicle when the charge ratio of the battery is high and the accelerator opening degree is small. It is possible to provide a system for driving a hybrid vehicle and a method of driving the hybrid vehicle which can store sufficient electric power in a battery and is excellent in the operating characteristic.

Patent
20 Sep 1999
TL;DR: In this article, a thermal model for the system has been developed, the model together with the presently sensed electrical power consumption, and the system temperature are used to predict a thermal trend for a system, which is then used in effecting a temperature control strategy within the electrically powered system.
Abstract: Thermal management within an electrically powered systems requires monitoring, from time-to-time, both electrical power consumption and temperature within the system The power consumption and temperature data thus obtained permits developing over time a thermal model for the system After a thermal model for the system has been thus developed, the model together with the presently sensed electrical power consumption, and the system temperature are used to predict a thermal trend for the system The predicted thermal trend thus obtained for the system is then used in effecting a temperature control strategy within the electrically powered system

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors model the dynamic behavior of prices in a network of interconnected, but decentralized, electric power markets, and estimate dynamic equations of unregulated, wholesale power prices at spot markets scattered over an eleven-state trading region.
Abstract: In this paper, we model the dynamic behavior of prices in a network of interconnected, but decentralized, electric power markets—an architecture very different from the centralized exchanges and power pools currently being implemented by many state regulators. We estimate dynamic equations of unregulated, wholesale power prices at spot markets scattered over an eleven-state trading region. The results indicate that this decentralized system of power and transmission trading produces prices that are efficient and dynamically stable over this vast network. Price convergence in the power market is similar to what has been observed in the recently deregulated natural gas market.

Patent
Marco Michael Rengan1
16 Mar 1999
TL;DR: In this article, a remotely located power adapter is used to charge a battery within a data processing system by utilizing a state control logic circuit for determining when to supply external electrical power to charge the battery.
Abstract: A method and system for supplying external electrical power to charge a battery within a data processing system by utilizing a automated remotely located power adapter is disclosed. The automated remotely located power adapter includes a state control logic circuit for determining when to supply external electrical power to charge the battery and an auto-close detection circuit for automatically shutting on and off the external electrical power in response to the state control logic. The automated remotely located power adapter is connectable between the external power supply and the data processing system for supplying external electrical power to charge the battery within the data processing system and automatically shuts off the external electrical power when the data processing system indicates that the battery is fully charged.

Patent
Tatsuya Yoshida1, Hiroyuki Saito1, Shinichi Sakamoto1, Mitsuru Koni1, Kiyoshi Horibe1 
25 Aug 1999
TL;DR: In this paper, the electric power line covered by the electric conductive material is arranged in a loop topology so as to start from the connection point to the battery and pass through the designated positions in the vehicle and return to battery.
Abstract: The electric power breaker for breaking the electric power is placed on the midpoint of the electric power line from the battery power supply, and the electric power line is extracted from the electric power breaker. In addition, the electric power supply terminal is placed on the midpoint on the electric power line, from which the electric power is supplied to the individual electric load. The electric power distribution and the electric power supply operation to the electric loads are controlled by the multiplex communication. A semiconductor device having a self protection function is used as the switching device for supplying the electric power. The electric power line covered by the electric conductive material is arranged in a loop topology so as to start from the connection point to the battery and pass through the designated positions in the vehicle and return to the battery. On the designated points on this loop, plural control modules are connected, and the electric power is supplied to them from the battery. By isolating plural electric conductive parts of the electric conductive layer covering the electric power line, each part connected to the abnormality detection circuit of the individual control module, and by detecting the electric potential change in the individual electric conductive part, the position of the abnormality can be identified by the position of the isolated electric conductive part where the short circuit abnormality is detected.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The helio-aero-gravity power concept consists of an air turbine-generator system in a chimney installed at the center of a carefully selected piece of land where insolation is high as discussed by the authors.

Patent
27 Jul 1999
TL;DR: In this paper, a communication system for a utility meter that has a primary power supply includes a primary communication circuit and a secondary communication circuit, which is operable to effectuate external communications when the primary electrical power from the primary power source is present.
Abstract: A communication system for a utility meter that has a primary power supply includes a primary communication circuit and a secondary communication circuit. The primary power supply is operable to receive a primary electrical power from a primary power source and generate a primary bias power therefrom. The primary communication circuit is operable to effectuate external communications when the primary electrical power from the primary power source is present. The secondary communication circuit is operable to effectuate external communications when the primary electrical power from the primary power source is interrupted.

Patent
03 Mar 1999
TL;DR: In this paper, a method and apparatus for power conditioning and for storing electrical energy, fossil fuel energy, or both in the form of a compressed gas which may then be used in combination with a fossil fuel to generate conditioned electrical power is disclosed.
Abstract: A method and apparatus for power conditioning and for storing electrical energy, fossil fuel energy, or both in the form of a compressed gas which may then be used in combination with a fossil fuel to generate conditioned electrical power is disclosed. The present invention provides a method wherein the energy so stored is used as a back-up power source to assure uninterrupted conditioned electrical power in the event of a failure of a primary electrical power source. Turbine rotors are maintained in rotation to provide a spinning reserve in that the inertia of the turbines can be used to generate power in the event of minor power disruptions, and the turbines can be powered for producing power in the event of greater power disruptions. The present invention provides an apparatus that enhances the flexibility and efficiency of a power consumer and the internconnected power providing system by allowing the user to have an efficient spinning reserve of power, by providing the capability of a user to shape the load, thereby reducing the spinning reserve requirement of the interconnected system, and to sell excess power and to control transportation costs. Since the present invention allows a user to purchase power from the most efficient source, the present invention promotes efficiency throughout the power generation and power transportation industry.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors proposed a hybrid solar photo-voltaic-wind domestic power generating system for a site on the western coast of India using short-term electrical power storage using lead-acid batteries, and auxiliary power from the A.C. mains power supply.

Patent
03 Sep 1999
TL;DR: In this paper, an electric starter operatively coupled to an internal combustion engine and an energy storage device for supplying the starter with power is described. But, it is not shown how to use the stored energy to start the engine.
Abstract: Methods and apparatus for starting an internal combustion engine are disclosed. One of the disclosed apparatus includes an electric starter operatively coupled to the internal combustion engine and an energy storage device for supplying the starter with power. The apparatus is also provided with a sensor for detecting a temperature of the internal combustion engine and a consumer control device associated with a consumer of electrical power. The apparatus is further provided with a power flow controller which controls the consumer control device such that a portion of the energy stored in the energy storage device is delivered to the consumer of electrical power before the electric starter is supplied with power. The portion of the energy has a size which is dependent upon the sensed temperature. The size of the portion is smaller at low temperatures than at high temperatures. In some embodiments, the power flow controller uses the sensed temperature to supplement the energy drawn from the short-term accumulator with energy from the long-term accumulator to ensure the starter is provided with sufficient energy to start the internal combustion engine.

Patent
14 Sep 1999
TL;DR: In this paper, when the power key on the remote controller 12 is pressed, the electromagnetic wave is sent from the Remote Controller 12 to the main unit 100 of the electric device and the switch circuit 23 or 43 as the first switching means is turned on.
Abstract: When the power key on the remote controller 12 is pressed, the electromagnetic wave is sent from the remote controller 12 to the main unit 100 of the electric device and the switch circuit 23 or 43 as the first switching means is turned on. Upon turning on of the first switching means by the power key operation, the power starts to be supplied from the second power supply 22 or 41 serving as the stand-by power supply circuit to the load circuit required for stand-by operation such as the microcomputer 24 and the light receiver 10. After that, corresponding to the first infrared signal sent from the remote controller 12, the relay 3 as the second switching means is turned on so that the commercial AC power source 1 is supplied to the main power supply circuit 2 in the main unit 100 of the electric device and the load circuit for the ordinary operation in the main unit 100 (main circuit of the device) start operation. The power is supplied from the second power supply 22 or 41 serving as the stand-by power supply circuit to the load circuit required for stand-by operation only for a short period from the start of the stand-by status after the power key operation to the ordinary operation status, and the power supply amount for the second power supply 22 or 41 serving as the stand-by power supply circuit can be only a little. When any power supply other than the commercial AC power source 1 such as a solar battery 221 is used as the second power supply, the stand-by power of the electric device in stand-by status can be reduced to zero.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The MADMEL program as discussed by the authors is a five-phase Power Management and Distribution System for a More-Electric Aircraft (MADMEL) program that was awarded by the Air Force to Northrop/Grumman Military Aircraft Division in September 1991.
Abstract: A five-phase Power Management and Distribution System for a More-Electric Aircraft (MADMEL) program was awarded by the Air Force to Northrop/Grumman Military Aircraft Division in September 1991. The objective of the program is to design, develop, and demonstrate an advanced electrical power generation and distribution system for a More-Electric Aircraft (MEA). The MEA emphasizes the use of electrical power in place of hydraulics, pneumatic, and mechanical power to optimize the performance and life cycle cost of the aircraft. This paper presents an overview of the MADMEL program and a top-level summary of the program results, development and test of major components to date. In Phase I and Phase II studies, the electrical load requirements were established and the electrical power system architecture was defined for both near-term (NT-year 1996) and far-term (FT-year 2003) MEA application. The detailed design and specification for the Electrical Power System (EPS), its interface with the Vehicle Management System, and the test set-up were developed under Phase III. Phase IV, fabrication and testing of the subsystem level hardware, has been completed. Overall system level integration and testing, Phase V, is scheduled to be completed by September 1999.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
18 Jul 1999
TL;DR: In this paper, a fair allocation of this cost among those consumers is the topic of this paper, based on the "toll road" concept, which requires each consumer to pay according to the amount of stress (usage) its equipment causes to the mitigation equipment.
Abstract: Utilities in charge of electric energy distribution are also power quality stewards; they decide when and where mitigation equipment is required to maintain the quality of electric energy supplied to end-users. Once the mitigation equipment is installed, its cost must be recovered from the consumers who have caused the power quality problems. The fair allocation of this cost among those consumers is the topic of this paper. The "toll road" concept is advocated this method requires each consumer to pay according to the amount of stress (usage) its equipment causes to the mitigation equipment. Theoretical background for an appropriate metering method is provided.