Showing papers on "Emergency management published in 1997"

Ten Criteria for Evaluating the Management of Community Disasters

Abstract: The discussion herein concerns important factors in the local management of disasters. We contrast this with the related but distinct process of disaster planning. Our assumption is that what is crucial is not management per se, but good management. Thus, to assess intelligently the management of community disasters requires an answer to the question: What is good management? The results of empirical research carried out by social scientists over the past 40 years are drawn upon in considering this question. The criteria identified entail: (1) correctly recognising differences between response and agent-generated demands; (2) adequately carrying out generic functions; (3) effectively mobilising personnel and resources; (4) generating an appropriate delegation of tasks and division of labour; (5) adequately processing information; (6) properly exercising decision-making; (7) developing overall coordination; (8) blending emergent and established organisational behaviours; (9) providing appropriate reports for the news media; and (10) having a well-functioning emergency operations centre. An issue also raised in the paper is how applicable these research findings-derived mostly from developed countries-are to the developing world.

Business Impacts of the Northridge Earthquake

Abstract: The Northridge earthquake of 17 January 1994, killed 57 people and injured an estimated 10,000 persons. The earthquake is the most costly disaster in U.S. history, in terms of dollar loss; costs continue to rise as more damage is uncovered, repairs are made, and disaster-related claims are paid out. Recently-issued government estimates place the losses due to direct earthquake damage at approximately $25 billion (Governor's Office of Emergency Services and Federal Emergency Management Agency, 1996), and researchers who are tracking Northridge-related losses believe ‘it is quite possible that total losses, excluding indirect effects, could reach as much as $40 billion’ (Eguchi, et al, 1996) The number of households and businesses that were affected by the earthquake far exceeded the size of the victim population in other recent major disasters in the U.S., including Hurricane Hugo in 1989 and Hurricane Andrew in 1992, and the assistance effort that was launched was the largest ever undertaken for a U.S. disaster. By the end of 1995, 681,710 applications for state and federal assistance had been received, which was more than double the amount filed for any other single disaster event (Governer's Office of Emergency Services and Federal Emergency Management Agency, 1996). Applications for the housing assistance programs operated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency totalled well over half a million, and nearly 200,000 households applied to the U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) for loans to rebuild or repair their homes. Additionally, approximately 39,000 businesses applied to the Small Business Administration for disaster loans (EQE International, 1995). This paper focuses on the immediate and longer-term impacts the earthquake had on businesses in the Greater Los Angeles region. The data reported here are based on a survey that the Disaster Research Center, at the University of Delaware, conducted with a representative, randomly-selected sample of businesses in the cities of Los Angeles and Santa Monica, two jurisdictions that were particularly hard-hit by the earthquake. The material presented here is primarily descriptive. The goal of this paper is not to develop or test complex analytic models, although the paper does refer to other more quantitative analyses that have been performed on these data. Rather, the objective is to outline for readers empirical findings on the various ways that the earthquake affected the operations and viability of businesses on the impact area. Few studies exist that document the range of impacts that disasters can have on businesses and business sectors, and even fewer are based on detailed data from large representative samples. The paper addresses the following research questions: (1) What direct impacts and losses did businesses experience in the earthquake? (2) In what ways did the earthquake affect the operations of the businesses studied? If they experienced business interruption, why were they forced to close? What other kinds of problems did business have to cope with following the earthquake? (3) What earthquake preparedness measures had businesses undertaken prior to the disaster, and what have they done subsequently to prepare? and (4) To what extent have business operations returned to pre-earthquake levels, and which businesses appear to be experiencing the most difficulty with recovery?

Development of a National Earthquake Loss Estimation Methodology

Abstract: This paper summarizes the development of a geographic information system (GIS)‐based regional loss estimation methodology for the United States funded as part of a four‐and‐one‐half year project by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) through the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS). The methodology incorporates state‐of‐the‐art approaches for: characterizing earth science hazards, including ground shaking, liquefaction, and landsliding; estimating damage and losses to buildings and lifelines; estimating casualties, shelter requirements and economic losses; and data entry to support loss estimates. The history of the methodology development; the methodology's scope, framework, and limitations; supporting GIS software; potential user applications; and future developments are discussed.

Problematical aspects of the information/ communication revolution for disaster planning and research: ten non‐technical issues and questions

Abstract: An information/communication revolution is being brought about by recent developments and innovations in computer and related technologies. Recognizes that many of the consequences will be very positive for all aspects of social life, but focuses on probable and possible negative effects of the currently accelerating cyberspace revolution. Discusses ten problematical aspects for disaster planning, management and research ranging, for example, from the creation of a new kind of disaster ‐ computer‐related system failures ‐ and the increased difficulties that will be generated for intra‐ and inter‐organizational communication and co‐ordination, to the problems that will come from an inevitable information overload and the diffusion of inappropriate or incorrect disaster relevant “facts” and “ideas”.

Real‐Time Loss Estimation as an Emergency Response Decision Support System: The Early Post‐Earthquake Damage Assessment Tool (EPEDAT)

Abstract: At the time of the Northridge earthquake, a number of new technologies, including real-time availability of earthquake source data, improved loss estimation techniques, Geographic Information Systems and various satellite-based monitoring systems, were either available or under consideration as emergency management resources. The potential benefits from these technologies for earthquake hazard mitigation, response and recovery, however, were largely conceptual. One of the major lessons learned from the January 17, 1994 earthquake was that these technologies could confer significant advantages in understanding and managing a major disaster, and that their integration would contribute a significant additional increment of utility. In the two and half years since the Northridge earthquake, important strides have been taken toward the integration of relatively discrete technologies in a system which provides real-time estimates of regional damage, losses and population impacts. This paper will describe the development, operation and application of the first real-time loss estimation system to be utilized by an emergency services organization.

Principles for Managing Community Relocation as a Hazard Mitigation Measure

Abstract: Permanent relocation of communities away from hazard-prone areas is becoming an important mitigation option for emergency management authorities throughout the world. By moving citizens permanently, one realizes two special benefits. First, relocation prevents death or injury from hazards that are minimally subject to human control ‐ that is, where structural mitigation measures are ineffective and forewarning is insufficient for simple evacuation. Secondly, relocation provides monetary saving so that government hazard insurance programs need not pay for repeated restorations of the same residences in the same hazard areas over a period of years. Simultaneously, there are two inherent problems with the use of a relocation policy: it constitutes a serious intrusion into citizens’ lives; and non-hazard related relocations (such as for dam construction or urban redevelopment) have a long history of negative outcomes. This paper traces the history of a community relocation in the southwestern United States, documenting citizen needs and responses to the event. Then, based on the hazards research literature and the case data, a series of principles are elaborated for creating ‘positive’ relocation experiences. In closing, the paper looks at the international use of relocation and the potential for applying the principles.

Disasters and the Information Technology Revolution

Abstract: This paper, the second in a series of state-of-the art reviews, examines the evolution and possible medium-term future of information technology (IT) in disaster management Until the end of the 1970s, civilian application of IT to disaster management was confined to a few specialised departments of universities, large companies and government Between the late 1970s and mid-1980s, microprocessor-based devices brought limited, though rapidly improving, computing capacity to a wider range of organisations and individuals Operational applications included real-time emergency information, management decision support and programme and project planning Extensive innovation occurred, though operational implementation was often long delayed or limited in scope During the late 1980s, desktop systems became more powerful, more networked, more portable and generally more mature, with a range of practical emergency-related tools emerging Computer communications emerged as a practical technology for linking emergency professionals on a global basis From the early 1990s onwards, powerful and inter-connectable computer equipment has evolved to become an indispensable component of disaster operations worldwide There are presently major changes under way in emergency-related global information access and networking--the implications of which have yet to be played out The last part of the paper highlights a set of key technologies which seems likely to shape disaster planning, management and research over the next 10 years, and draws out some operational and organisational implications

An assessment of disaster risk and its management in Thailand.

Abstract: Historically, Thailand has been a disaster-free country, suffering only minor losses from natural hazards through the years. Emerging as a newly industrialised nation, the kingdom now faces an increased risk of economic and public damage from man-made disasters associated with rapid development. A risk assessment was carried out on the level of disaster management. That assessment was preceded by an analysis of the traditional definitions of disaster risk, resulting in a redefinition to fit the needs of this study. This holds that the risk of disaster is the product of hazards, vulnerability and the level of management exercised over both the hazard and the vulnerable elements. The results of the risk assessment, conducted through analysis of those three components, are discussed along with impediments which may hinder good disaster or accident management. Floods, in both natural and man-made manifestations, were identified as the highest risk factor, followed by major accidents and explosions, both man-made hazards. Major recommendations arising from the study included the consolidation of disaster management responsibilities currently held by several agencies into a central co-ordinating committee, the review and restructure of related law and regulations, the conduct of provincial and country-wide hazard assessments and the creation of a ‘culture of safety’ in Thailand

The RODOS System: Decision Support for Off-Site Emergency Management in Europe

Abstract: The integrated and comprehensive Real-time On-line DecisiOn Support system, RODOS, for off-site emergency management of nuclear accidents is being developed with support of the European Commission and the German Ministry of Environment. Designed as a generic tool, the RODOS system will be applicable from the very early stages of an accident up to many years after the release and from the vicinity of a site to far distant areas. Decision support will be provided at various levels, ranging from the largely descriptive, with information on the present and future radiological situation, to an evaluation of the benefits and disadvantages of different countermeasures' options. A large number of West and East European institutes are involved in its development to operational use. This paper gives an overview of the structure, the content, the main functions and the development status of the RODOS system and discusses its potential role for improving emergency response in Europe.

Development and Disaster Management

Abstract: Disaster management concepts have gradually developed at different levels, where people are more aware that there is more to disaster management than merely reaction to events. Sound disaster management is the effective application of holistic management techniques to hazards and their relationship with vulnerability. In other words, it is the effective application of risk management techniques to all hazards and all vulnerability factors. The ultimate aim of disaster management is to manage circumstances in such a way that the outcome is not a disaster.

Reflecting on the weaknesses of the international community during the IDNDR: some implications for research and its application

Abstract: As the end of the United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction approaches it is necessary to review what is known about global responses to catastrophes. Discusses four major weaknesses of the relief and mitigation community that are frequently identified in the disaster studies literature: the violation of human rights, a low degree of relief co‐ordination, difficulties and drawbacks of providing aid, and dilemmas of development. Offers possible solutions for these challenges and also highlights the implications of the findings for research and application. Gives direction to both academics and practitioners who are interested in disaster relief and prevention around the world.

Water in the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

Abstract: The International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) was launched by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1987 to run from 1990 to 2000. Its aim is to reduce the loss of life, property damage and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters. The resolution proclaiming the Decade makes specific reference to floods, tsunamis, drought and desertification among the principal disasters to be considered. Floods cause about one third of all deaths, one third of all injuries and one third of all damage from natural disasters. Tropical storms and droughts are the most destructive events and in them it is the flooding and a lack of water, respectively, which is the major feature. Water is therefore by far the most important element in natural disasters. The IDNDR calls for action by governments and international organizations to put greater emphasis than in the past on disaster prevention. Hydrologists, hydraulic engineers and those responsible for the management of land and water resources have a major role to play in this regard. The remaining few years of the Decade should be used to launch a new focus on disaster prevention as a central pillar of sustainable development in both developed and developing countries.

Disaster preparedness planning: Policy and leadership issues

Abstract: National, regional and local disaster preparedness planning requirements allow a wide range of responses. Describes a study in which such responses were cast against Quarantelli’s minimum criteria and Levin’s notion of experience as a powerful source for change. Data collection and comparative analyses were accomplished through the examination of local school district plans and policies as well as interviews with school leaders who had survived disasters. Concludes that school districts meet minimum local standards but few meet Quarantelli’s minimum; and having lived through a disaster neither served as impetus to initiate disaster preparedness plans nor resulted in plans incorporating knowledge gained.

The efficacy of integrating "smart simulated casualties" in hospital disaster drills.

Abstract: Introduction: Full-scale disaster drills are complex, expensive, and may involve hundreds or thousands of people. However, even when carefully planned, they often fail to manifest the details of medical care given to the casualties during the drill. Objective: To assess the feasibility of integrating physicians among the simulated casualties of a hospital disaster drill. Methods: A total of 178 physicians graduating an Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) course participated in eight hospital disaster drills during 1994 as “Smart Victims.” The participants were given cards with descriptions of their injury and detailed instructions on how to manipulate their medical condition according to the medical care provided in the hospital. They also were given coded questionnaires to fill out during the process of the drill. Conclusions were drawn from analysis of the questionnaires and from a roundtable discussion following each drill. Results: The “smart casualties” made comments on the following topics: 1) triage (over-triage in 9%, and under-triage in 4%); 2) treatment sites; 3) medical equipment usage (i.e., shortage of ventilators and splinting devices); 4) medical knowledge and care rendered by the hospital staff; 5) evacuation and escorting of the wounded; 6) management of patients with post-traumatic stress disorder; and 7) medical documentation. Their comments contributed valuable information on the quality of medical care and organization, and identified obstacles that otherwise would have been overlooked. The “smart casualties” were very cooperative and indicated that their participation in the drill contributed to their understanding of disaster situations in hospitals. Conclusion: Integrating physicians among the simulated casualties in a hospital disaster drill may contribute to achieving the objectives of hospital disaster drills and add to disaster management education of the simulated casualty physicians.

The Use of Geographical Information Systems in Disaster Research

Abstract: In the last ten years, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have slowly crept their way into the everyday methodological discourse in areas such as geography, urban planning, and emergency management. However, GIS has yet to be integrated into social science research on disaster. This paper uses examples of GIS use in emergency management to help inform the future direction of GIS use in disaster research. While computers and software and, for that matter, data are vital to the development of an effective system, more important are researchers who can generate theory-based uses for the technology that offer new understandings of disaster phenomena. Only through research teams that include both researchers (idea generators) and technicians (idea "implementers") can GIS be effectively used in disaster research.

Risk Management in the Emergency Management Context

Abstract: A risk management framework agreed by the National Emergency Management Committee in 1996, which is adopted for the systematic application of management policies, procedures and practices to the tasks of identifying, analysing, evaluating, treating and monitoring risk, is presented. In an era of increasing accountability, risk management provides a framework, which could help to focus on managing community exposure to major risks and facilitate the identification and implementation of intervention options, which address the socially significant problems.

Disaster management in the Caribbean

Abstract: This paper identifies the main trends in approaches to disaster management in the Caribbean at both regional and national levels over the past 20 years. It highlights the main reasons why and how the region has moved from an ad hoc response to an organised approach. Finally, it suggests ways in which future regional and national disaster management could be improved.

The role of amateur radio in providing emergency electronic communication for disaster management

Abstract: In the USA, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provides support to State and local governments in fulfilment of their responsibilities for preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation of disasters. One method FEMA has used to support State and local emergency communication functions was to sign and implement a Memorandum of Understanding with the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) for amateur radio operators to provide electronic communications for State and local governments in disasters. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has licensed more than 600,000 amateur radio operators in the USA. The national organization of amateur radio operators called the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) was formed in 1914. More than 80,000 of these amateurs have registered their availability for emergency communications in disasters in the ARRL’s Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES). Amateur radio operators have been providing communications in natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes and earthquakes since 1910. Since amateur radio operation was prohibited during the years of both World Wars I and II, FEMA has sponsored a new branch of the amateur service called Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES). RACES operators are authorized to operate if the President invokes his War Emergency Powers while all other amateur operation would be silenced. Examines the role of amateur radio in providing emergency electronic communications for disaster management and explores future contributions.

Following Some Dreams: Recognizing Opportunities, Posing Interesting Questions, and Implementing Alternative Methods

Abstract: For over three decades I have implemented alternative methodologies so as to pursue interesting research questions. My work has been guided by three goals: (1) test and extend sociological theory related to human response to disaster; (2) identify insights relevant to emergency management practitioners; and (3) communicate the results to both the academic and practitioner communities. In this essay three themes are developed: (1) a survey of the alternative methods I used in numerous disaster studies; (2) an evaluation of the state of disaster research; and (3) speculative thoughts regarding future directions, needs, and potentials.

Gender Issues in Disaster Management: The Latur Earthquake

Abstract: This study maintains that the impact of disasters depends on the nature and intensity of the event, but in all cases the impact varies according to the degree of vulnerability of the social groups ...

Disaster Policy and Emergency Management in Russia

Abstract: Contents: Preface Emergencies, Disasters and Catastrophes: Development Trends and Conceptualisation The Conception of Emergency Management Cycle The State Emergency Management Policy in Russia: Legal Basis and Organisational Issues Emergency Management in Russia in Practice: The Case Studies of the 1990's.

A Socioeconomic Analysis of Hurricanes in Puerto Rico: An Overview of Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness

Abstract: The island of Puerto Rico has been severely affected by a significant number of hurricanes within the past 100 years. Hurricanes San Ciriaco (1899), San Felipe (1928), San Nicolas (1931), San Ciprian (1932), Santa Clara (1956), Federico (1979), and Hugo (1989) have had devastating social and economic effects on the island. The problems of hurricanes are further exacerbated by the topography of Puerto Rico, which includes areas that are highly susceptible to flooding and landslides. As a result of the changing demographic patterns in Puerto Rico, there has been a significant increase in population density, in the proportion of the elderly and physically disabled population, and an increasing concentration of residents in areas that are at high risk due to floods and/or landslides. These factors, combined with the dramatic increase in modern, high-rise infrastructure (i.e., hotels and condominiums) in the coasts of the island, contribute to our increasing vulnerability to disasters. In order to prepare better for disasters and to coordinate the responsibilities and efforts of governmental organizations during periods of crisis, Law Number 22 (1976) and the Executive Order of the Governor of Puerto Rico (1993) were established. However, past experiences with disasters, such as Hurricane Hugo, show that the results of the planning, response, and recovery efforts of these organizations have been mixed. The lack of human and economic resources has presented serious problems in the management of disasters among organizations on the island. The research literature, and data collected from disaster management officials in Puerto Rico, show that there is an urgent need to educate organizational leaders as well as the general population if we are to obtain an “appropriate” response during disaster situations. Moreover, existing disaster mitigation, preparedness, and response strategies must be revised and evaluated before the next hurricane strikes.