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Showing papers on "Emotional exhaustion published in 2000"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The purposes of this article are to provide a definition of emotional labor that integrates these perspectives, to discuss emotion regulation as a guiding theory for understanding the mechanisms ofotional labor, and to present a model of emotional Labor that includes individual differences and organizational factors.
Abstract: The topic of emotions in the workplace is beginning to garner closer attention by researchers and theorists. The study of emotional labor addresses the stress of managing emotions when the work role demands that certain expressions be shown to customers. However, there has been no overarching framework to guide this work, and the previous studies have often disagreed on the definition and operationalization of emotional labor. The purposes of this article are as follows: to review and compare previous perspectives of emotional labor, to provide a definition of emotional labor that integrates these perspectives, to discuss emotion regulation as a guiding theory for understanding the mechanisms of emotional labor, and to present a model of emotional labor that includes individual differences (such as emotional intelligence) and organizational factors (such as supervisor support).

2,767 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the direction and time-frame of relationships between perceived self-e$cacy in classroom management and the three dimensions of burnout among 243 secondary school teachers.

1,043 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore potential mechanisms linking pleasant feelings and good health, including direct effects of positive affect on physiology, especially the immune system, the information value of emotional experiences, the psychological resources engendered by positive feeling states, and the ways in which mood can motivate health-relevant behaviors, and elicitation of social support.
Abstract: Positive emotional states may promote healthy perceptions, beliefs, and physical well-being itself. To explore potential mechanisms linking pleasant feelings and good health, the authors consider several lines of research, including (a) direct effects of positive affect on physiology, especially the immune system, (b) the information value of emotional experiences, (c) the psychological resources engendered by positive feeling states, (d) the ways in which mood can motivate health-relevant behaviors, and (e) the elicitation of social support. As anticipated by the Greek physician Hippocrates, positive emotions and healthy outcomes may be linked through multiple pathways.

682 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Findings show independent cumulative effects of both the JD-C Model and the ERI Model on employee well-being are not significantly different in men and women as well as in young and old people.

674 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors distinguished between two modal emotional display rules, demands to express positive efference and demands to suppress negative efference, that partially constitute the work roles of many employees.
Abstract: The present study distinguished between two modal emotional display rules, demands to express positive efference and demands to suppress negative efference, that partially constitute the work roles of many employees. Perceived demands to express positive emotion were positively related to health symptoms primarily among those reporting: (1) lower identification with the organization; (2) lower job involvement; and (3) lower emotional adaptability. The effects of various personality traits and situational variables on perceived emotional labor differed depending on the nature of the emotional labor. The findings are discussed in terms of implications of emotional labor for health and practices through which organizations might intervene to minimize its unhealthful consequences among employees. We also attempt to reconcile the findings with some of the related research in psychology suggesting that some forms of required efference may have salutary physiological consequences. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

593 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Significant interaction effects indicated that burnout was particularly prevalent among those nurses who experienced ERI and put relatively high intrinsic effort into their jobs, as reflected by their strong tendency to be personally in control over job conditions.
Abstract: This study among a sample of 204 German nurses tested the hypothesis that an imbalance of high extrinsic efforts spent (i.e. job demands) and low extrinsic rewards obtained (e.g. poor promotion prospects) are associated with the burnout syndrome: the depletion of nurses' emotional resources. The results of a series of analyses of variances confirmed this hypothesis, by showing that those nurses who experienced an effort-reward imbalance (ERI) reported higher levels on two of the three core dimensions of burnout (i.e. emotional exhaustion and depersonalization) than those who did not experience such an imbalance. Moreover - as additionally hypothesized - significant interaction effects indicated that burnout (i.e. emotional exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment) was particularly prevalent among those nurses who experienced ERI and put relatively high intrinsic effort into their jobs, as reflected by their strong tendency to be personally in control over job conditions.

447 citations


Journal Article
TL;DR: The findings support the concern that medical oncology personnel are experiencing burnout and high levels of stress and that large numbers are considering leaving or decreasing their work hours.
Abstract: Background: Cancer Care Ontario’s Systemic Therapy Task Force recently reviewed the medical oncology system in the province. There has been growing concern about anecdotal reports of burnout, high levels of stress and staff leaving or decreasing their work hours. However, no research has systematically determined whether there is evidence to support or refute these reports. To this end, a confidential survey was undertaken. Methods: A questionnaire was mailed to all 1016 personnel of the major providers of medical oncology services in Ontario. The questionnaire consisted of the Maslach Burnout Inventory, the 12-item General Health Questionnaire, a questionnaire to determine job satisfaction and stress, and questions to obtain demographic characteristics and to measure the staff’s consideration of alternative work situations. Results: The overall response rate was 70.9% (681 of 961 eligible subjects): by group it was 63.3% (131/207) for physicians, 80.9% (314/388) for allied health professionals and 64.5% (236/366) for support staff. The prevalence of emotional exhaustion were significantly higher among the physicians (53.3%) than among the allied health professionals (37.1%) and the support staff (30.5%) (p ≤ 0.003); the same was true for feelings of depersonalization (22.1% v. 4.3% and 5.5% respectively) (p ≤ 0.003). Feelings of low personal accomplishment were significantly higher among physicians (48.4%) and allied health professionals (54.0%) than among support staff (31.4%) (p ≤ 0.002). About one-third of the respondents in each group reported that they have considered leaving for a job outside the cancer care system. Significantly more physicians (42.6%) than allied health professionals (7.6%) or support staff (4.5%) stated that they have considered leaving for a job outside the province. Interpretation: The findings support the concern that medical oncology personnel are experiencing burnout and high levels of stress and that large numbers are considering leaving or decreasing their work hours. This is an important finding for the cancer care system, where highly trained and experienced health care workers are already in short supply.

432 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a study among a sample of 207 general practitioners (GPs) uses a five-year longitudinal design to test a process model of burnout, which is hypothesized and found that demanding patient contacts produce a lack of reciprocity in the GP-patient relationship, which, in turn, depletes GPs' emotional resources and initiates the burnout syndrome.
Abstract: This study among a sample of 207 general practitioners (GPs) uses a five-year longitudinal design to test a process model of burnout. On the basis of social exchange and equity theory, it is hypothesized and found that demanding patient contacts produce a lack of reciprocity in the GP-patient relationship, which, in turn, depletes GPs' emotional resources and initiates the burnout syndrome. More specifically, structural equation analyses confirmed that - both at T1 and T2 - lack of reciprocity mediates the impact of patient demands on emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion, in turn, evokes negative attitudes toward patients (depersonalization), and toward oneself in relation to the job (reduced personal accomplishment). Moreover, this process model of burnout was confirmed at T2, even after controlling for T1-scores on each of the model components. Finally, T1 depersonalization predicted the intensity and frequency of T2 patient demands, after controlling for T1 patient demands. This major finding suggests that GPs who attempt to gain emotional distance from their patients as a way of coping with their exhaustion, evoke demanding and threatening patient behaviors themselves. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. (aut.ref.)

401 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined the extent to which dimensions of an individual's personality have differential efects on the three components of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and diminished personal accomplishment) among nurses working in a hospital.
Abstract: Job burnout continues to plague organizations and individuals, resulting in costly consequences. In examining the antecedents to job burnout, prior research has primarily focused on role stressors present in the job environment. with little attention given to individual characteristics. The purpose of this field study was to examine the extent to which dimensions of an individual's personality have differential efects on the 3 components of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization. and diminished personal accomplishment) among nurses working in a hospital. After controlling for several demographic variables and 3 role stressors, findings indicate that specific dimensions of personality do significantly and differentially impact the experience of the 3 components of burnout.

318 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The problem-focused strategies CPS workers are taught and use most do not help deal with the emotional content and context of their work, suggesting the use of emotion-focused coping to prevent and remediate burnout.

271 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Empirical intelligence and job control explained significant amounts of the variance in both job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Abstract: Job control may be defined as the latitude to make decisions and the freedom to select the most appropriate skills to complete the task. Emotional dissonance may be defined as the conflict between expressed and experienced emotions. In this study, job control and self-efficacy were theorized to jointly affect emotional dissonance. Individuals with high self-efficacy were found to be more satisfied under conditions of little job control, whereas those with low self-efficacy favored high job control. The impact of job control on emotional intelligence was also studied. Emotional intelligence may be defined as the set of skills that contribute to accurate self-appraisal of emotion as well as the detection of emotional cues in others and the use of feelings to motivate and achieve in one's life. Emotional intelligence and job control explained significant amounts of the variance in both job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined processes by which occupational burnout may transfer from one person to another and found that the prevalence of perceived burnout among participants' colleagues was most strongly related to individual teachers' burnout.
Abstract: This study of 154 Dutch high school teachers examined processes by which occupational burnout may transfer from one person to another. Two conditions that may increase the probability of burnout contagion were investigated; namely, individual teachers' susceptibility to emotional contagion, and the frequency with which teachers are exposed to colleagues with student- and work-related problems. Consistent with hypotheses derived from theories about emotional contagion, the results suggest that bumout contagion was most pronounced under these 2 high-risk conditions. Specifically, the prevalence of perceived burnout among participants' colleagues was most strongly related to individual teachers' burnout (i. e., emotional exhaustion and depersonalization), when the teachers were highly susceptible to the emotions of others and when they frequently communicated with each other about work-related problems.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, three converging, multimethod studies examined personality and emotional processes and found that agreeableness and sex were significant predictors of emotional experience and of efforts to control emotion.
Abstract: Three converging, multimethod studies examined personality and emotional processes. Study 1 (N = 321) examined links among sex, personality, and expectations for emotional events. In Study 2, participants (N = 468) described contents of emotionally evocative slides to a partner (either a friend or a stranger). Participants reported their emotional experience, efforts to control emotion, and the anticipated reactions of their partners. Structural modeling of self-report data and analyses of observational data indicated that Agreeableness and sex were significant predictors of emotional experience and of efforts to control emotion. Study 3 (N = 68) replicated and extended the two previous studies using psychophysiological methods to examine responses to positively and negatively charged emotional materials. Outcomes are discussed in terms of processes underlying the five-factor structural dimension of Agreeableness and links to emotional self-regulation.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the centrality of emotion in the organizing process of 911 dispatchers is discussed and the role of emotional labor in the construction of organizational community is discussed. But, the authors focus on the positive aspects of emotional labour, not the negative aspects.
Abstract: Although both scholars and practitioners continue to privilege the “rational” aspects of organization, this article demonstrates the centrality of emotion in the organizing process. The case study method combines observation at a 911 center, interviews with dispatchers, and analysis of selected calls. Departing from most treatments of emotional labor, this article features workers who not only suffer through, cope with, and resist emotional labor but sometimes also seek it out. For these 911 dispatchers, emotional labor is a fun, exciting, and rewarding part of their work. In addition to providing a description of these neglected positive functions of emotional labor, this article speaks to a broader issue: the role of emotional labor in the construction of organizational community.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, structural equation modeling with LISREL was used to investigate the factor structure of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), and a new measurement model was developed in a sample of 197 nurses consisting of the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization dimensions, which were measured with five and two empirical MBI indicators.
Abstract: Structural equation modelling with LISREL was used to investigate the factor structure of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). Emotional exhaustion was the most robust of the MBI's three factors, followed by depersonalization, while the personal accomplishment factor performed weakly. A new measurement model was developed in a sample of 197 nurses consisting of the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization dimensions, which were measured with five and two empirical MBI indicators, respectively. A test of invariance of the two-factor model across three samples (i.e. one calibration sample of nurses, and two validation samples consisting of hospital laboratory technicians and hospital managers with an effective sample size of 445) produced a good fit for the proposed two-factor model. Assessment of psychometric properties of the two-factor model produced (1) internal consistencies comparable to those reported in the literature for the MBI's originally specified emotional exhaustion and depersonalization sc...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors measured burnout levels for psychiatric nurses and determined the respective roles of the environment and the individual on burnout level using Maslach and Jackson's (1986) Burnout Inventory.
Abstract: Burnout not only affects psychiatric nurses' ability to provide optimal patient care, but its consequences extend to the nurse's psychological and physical health. Couched in a cognitive-transactional model, the broad aim of the current study was to measure burnout levels for psychiatric nurses and to determine the respective roles of the environment and the individual on burnout levels. Burnout levels were measured using Maslach and Jackson's (1986) Burnout Inventory. Environmental variables measured included work load, collegial support, role conflict and role ambiguity. Finally, Antonovsky's (1987) sense of coherence (SOC) measured the characteristics of the individual. Although burnout levels were generally high, a low sense of personal accomplishment was particularly problematic. Emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation correlated significantly with all factors of the work environment and with the SOC. Personal accomplishment related only to role conflict. Multiple regression analyses showed the se...

Journal Article
01 Nov 2000-Oncology
TL;DR: While the rewards of working in oncology are usually sufficient to keep nurses and doctors in the field, they also experience burnout symptoms that vary by gender and personal attributes, and interventions are needed that address the specific problems of each group.
Abstract: This article identifies the professional stressors experienced by nurses, house staff, and medical oncologists and examines the effect of stress and personality attributes on burnout scores. A survey was conducted of 261 house staff, nurses, and medical oncologists in a cancer research hospital, and oncologists in outside clinical practices. It measured burnout, psychological distress, and physical symptoms. Each participant completed a questionnaire that quantified life stressors, personality attributes, burnout, psychological distress, physical symptoms, coping strategies, and social support. The results showed that house staff experienced the greatest burnout. They also reported greater emotional exhaustion, a feeling of emotional distance from patients, and a poorer sense of personal accomplishment. Negative work events contributed significantly to level of burnout; however, having a "hardy" personality helped to alleviate burnout. Nurses reported more physical symptoms than house staff and oncologists. However, they were less emotionally distant from patients. Women reported a lower sense of accomplishment and greater distress. The four most frequent methods of relaxing were talking to friends, using humor, drinking coffee or eating, and watching television. One unexpected finding was that the greater the perception of oneself as religious, the lower the level of burnout. Thus, while the rewards of working in oncology are usually sufficient to keep nurses and doctors in the field, they also experience burnout symptoms that vary by gender and personal attributes. House staff are most stressed and report the greatest and most severe symptoms of stress. Interventions are needed that address the specific problems of each group.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used alternative, more focused, and multifaceted measures of both job demands and job control that are relevant and applicable to today's working contexts to test the Demand Control Model (DCM), accompanied by three goals.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to test the Demand-Control Model (DCM), accompanied by three goals. Firstly, we used alternative, more focused, and multifaceted measures of both job demands and job control that are relevant and applicable to today's working contexts. Secondly, this study intended to focus on particular demands in human services work and to incorporate these demands in the DCM. Finally, this occupation-based study investigated relatively large well-defined subgroups compared to a total sample. Workers from five human service sectors (n = 2,485) were included in a cross-sectional survey (i.e., health care, transport, bank/insurance, retail trade, and warehouse). Results showed that job demands and job control are able to show several interaction effects on employee well-being and health, but only in specific occupational groups. In conclusion, the current findings provide renewed empirical support for the view that high-strain jobs (high demand, low control) are conducive to ill health (i.e., emotional exhaustion, psychosomatic health complaints). Further, it appears that active jobs (high demands, high control) give rise to positive outcomes (i.e., job challenge, job satisfaction).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the main and interactive effects of the key dimensions of the demand-control-support model in predicting levels of strain (specifically emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and job dissatisfaction) and feelings of productivity and competency (personal accomplishment) in a multi-occupational sample of human service workers (N = 813).
Abstract: The aim of the study was to test the main and interactive effects of the key dimensions of the demand-control-support model in predicting levels of strain (specifically emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and job dissatisfaction) and feelings of productivity and competency (personal accomplishment) in a multi-occupational sample of human service workers (N = 813). Controlling for demographics, negative affectivity (NA), and quadratic terms, structural equation analyses showed some support for the additive iso-strain hypothesis: jobs combining high demands, low control and low support produced the lowest levels of satisfaction in workers. High demands and low supports only were associated with high depersonalization, and high emotional exhaustion. Support was also found for the additive active learning hypotheses: jobs combining high demands and high control produced the highest levels of personal accomplishment. The study supports job redesign interventions for improving worker well-being and productivity.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of psychosocial work characteristics (influence at work, job insecurity, organizational climate and leadership relations) on general well-being (psychosomatic symptoms) via sense of coherence (SOC) in a one-year follow-up study were investigated.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to test a mediational model appropriate for explaining the effects of psychosocial work characteristics (influence at work, job insecurity, organizational climate and leadership relations) on general well-being, (psychosomatic symptoms) and on occupational well-being (emotional exhaustion at work) via sense of coherence (SOC) in a one-year follow-up study. The questionnaire data were gathered in four Finnish organizations in February 1995 and 1996. Altogether 219 employees participated in the study in both years. The results, based on structural equation modelling, showed that a good organizational climate and low job insecurity were related to strong SOC, which was, in turn, linked to a high level of general as well as occupational well-being. In addition, those employees who experienced changes in organizational climate and leadership relations during the follow-up period, showed changes in SOC which was, in turn, related to changes in the well-being indicators. The results thus highlight the major role of a good organizational climate for enhancing SOC and, consequently, well-being. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the relationship among coach burnout, coaching behaviors, and athletes' psychological responses using Chelladurai's (1980, 1990) multidimensional model of leadership as a theoretical framework.
Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship among coach burnout, coaching behaviors, and athletes’ psychological responses using Chelladurai’s (1980, 1990) multidimensional model of leadership as a theoretical framework. Two questions were addressed: (a) Do coaches who vary in level of burnout differ in the behaviors athletes perceive they exhibit? (b) Are coaching behaviors related to athletes’ enjoyment, perceived competence, anxiety, and burnout? A sample of 193 female soccer players and 15 head coaches of high school teams completed measures of the constructs of interest. Coaches higher in emotional exhaustion were perceived by their teams as providing less training and instruction and social support and making fewer autocratic and greater democratic decisions. For the second question, athletes’ perceptions of greater training and instruction, social support, positive feedback, democratic decisions, and less autocratic style were related to more positive (i.e., perceived competenc...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, levels of teacher burnout were compared among 542 German and Chinese teachers and they found that there were only minor differences between the Germans and the Chinese, but major differences between those two groups and the U.S. normative data.
Abstract: Teacher burnout is a world-wide phenomenon that draws the attention of educational psychologists and stimulates efforts in construct elaboration and measurement. Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization (cynicism), and lack of personal accomplishments are three dimensions that constitute the burnout syndrome. Levels of this burnout syndrome were compared among 542 German and Chinese teachers. It turned out that there were only minor differences between the Germans and the Chinese, but major differences between those two groups and the U.S. American normative data. Moreover, stress resource factors were measured, namely perceived self-efficacy and proactive attitude. Their negative intercorrelations with burnout supported the validity of the burnout measure, although the associations were much closer in the German subsample. An attempt to replicate the American three-factorial structure of the burnout construct failed in both subsamples, which is in line with previous evidence and calls for a revision of th...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Owners had less social support from work-related sources and perceived lower levels of role ambiguity and role conflict, less emotional exhaustion, and higher levels of job satisfaction and professional satisfaction than did nonowners.
Abstract: One hundred sixty licensed morticians were surveyed to examine differences among business owners, managers, and employees on the relations proposed by G. F. Koeske and R. D. Koeske's (1993) stressor-strain-outcome model. Forty-eight percent of the morticians were owners, 16% were managers, and 36% were employees. Owners had less social support from work-related sources and perceived lower levels of role ambiguity and role conflict, less emotional exhaustion, and higher levels of job satisfaction and professional satisfaction than did nonowners. Social support from work-related sources and ownership each moderated the relationship between emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction but not between emotional exhaustion and professional satisfaction. Emotional exhaustion partially mediated the effect of stressors on job satisfaction and professional satisfaction.

Journal Article
TL;DR: The findings examining burnout in Division I athletic trainers were similar to those of other studies investigating coaches and coach-teachers and in support of Smith's theoretical model of stress and burnout.
Abstract: Objective A growing body of knowledge indicates that too much stress can negatively influence psychological and physical health. A model proposed by Smith to explore personal and situational variables, stress appraisal, and burnout has led to significant understanding of burnout of individuals working in service professions. We examined the relationship of hardiness, social support, and work-related issues relevant to athletic trainers to perceived stress and the relationship of perceived stress to burnout. Design and setting Correlational analyses were performed to examine the relationships predicted by Smith's model. In addition, we conducted stepwise multiple regression analyses to assess the relative contributions of the personal and situational variables to perceived stress and to examine the relative impact of perceived stress on 3 burnout factors (emotional exhaustion, personal accomplishment, and depersonalization). Subjects One hundred eighteen certified athletic trainers working in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I-A intercollegiate settings that maintain a football program. Measurements We assessed personal and situational variables using the Hardiness Test, the Social Support Questionnaire, and the Athletic Training Issues Survey, adapted for this study. The Perceived Stress Scale was used to assess stress appraisal, and the Maslach Burnout Inventory was used to assess 3 dimensions of burnout. Results Our results were in support of Smith's theoretical model of stress and burnout. Athletic trainers who scored lower on hardiness and social support and higher on athletic training issues tended to have higher levels of perceived stress. Furthermore, higher perceived stress scores were related to higher emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and lower levels of personal accomplishment. Conclusions Our findings examining burnout in Division I athletic trainers were similar to those of other studies investigating coaches and coach-teachers and in support of Smith's theoretical model of stress and burnout.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Job stress was significantly correlated with overall burnout and its three dimensions and job satisfaction in both samples and the role of gender as a moderator of stress-burnout relationship was only marginally supported.
Abstract: This study examined the relationship of job stress with burnout and its three dimensions (emotional exhaustion, lack of accomplishment and depersonalization), job satisfaction, organizational commitment and psychosomatic health problems. Data were collected by means of a structured questionnaire from Canadian managers (N = 67) and nurses (N = 173). Pearson correlation and moderated multiple regression were used to analyze the data. Job stress was significantly correlated with overall burnout and its three dimensions and job satisfaction in both samples. In the nursing sample, job stress was also significantly correlated with psychosomatic health problems and organizational commitment. Moderated multiple regression only marginally supported the role of gender as a moderator of stress-burnout relationship.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Greek teachers' causal attributions, emotional and cognitive responses, coping strategies and suggestions for effective coping strategies with students with emotional and behavioural difficulties are examined to find teacher training becomes crucial as a process of adopting patterns of thought and strategies for responding to students with psychological difficulties.
Abstract: Background. The vast majority of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties are educated in their usual classes in ordinary schools across the countries. The study, therefore, of teachers’ responses to these children is important for both teachers’ and students’ well-being in schools. Research provides evidence that teachers attribute students’ difficulties to factors external to themselves, that is family or child factors and although they experience feelings of irritation and indifference with disruptive students they feel responsible and committed to help them. As far as their coping strategies are concerned, teachers seem to mostly favour positive interventions. Aims. This study aimed to examine Greek teachers’ causal attributions, emotional and cognitive responses, coping strategies and suggestions for effective coping strategies with students with emotional and behavioural difficulties. Sample. This comprised 391 elementary teachers teaching in 60 public schools in the area of Athens. Method. Teachers completed an inventory presenting six short scenarios of students with emotional and behavioural difficulties, varying in the type of difficulty (conduct or emotional) and the degree of severity for teachers to handle them (mild or severe). Results. Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed that teachers perceived school and teacher factors as causal of emotional and behavioural difficulties. Teachers expressed feelings of sympathy for these children, and perceived themselves as responsible, self-efficacious and inclined to help them. Finally, they reported using supportive techniques to handle emotional and behavioural difficulties, which they also considered as effective. Conclusions. Teacher training becomes crucial as a process of adopting patterns of thought and strategies for responding to students with emotional and behavioural difficulties.

Journal Article
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors recommend that counselors prescribe self-care for themselves, and provide recommended resources to do so below; however, they do not address the impact of working with others in general or those who have been traumatized.
Abstract: For the past 25 years, counseling and psychology professional literature has examined the issues of stress on the job. Research and discussion initially identified burnout resulting from job stress as an important area for treatment and prevention. In the last decade, the focus has shifted from burnout to secondary traumatic stress due to the recognition of the specific challenges of working with traumatized individuals. Whether we are addressing the impact of working with others in general or those who have been traumatized, research agrees that we have a responsibility to maintain our own health and wellness as counselors (Iliffe & Steed, 2000; Miller, 1998; Savicki & Cooley, 1982; Sexton, 1999; Sherman, 1996). The challenge lies in the fact that wellness is a concept that we as counselors often focus on more readily for our clients than ourselves. Counselors who are trained to care for others often overlook the need for personal self-care and do not apply to themselves the techniques prescribed for their clients. Therefore, this manuscript offers numerous resources for self-care that can be helpful in maintaining wellness. Following the advice Hippocrates might have made, "Counselor heal thyself," we recommend that counselors prescribe self-care for themselves. We provide recommended resources to do so below. In the 1970s, the study of burnout in the counseling profession resulted in definitions of burnout, several instruments for its measure (Arthur, 1990), and recommendations for burnout prevention. Burnout has been defined as "to fail, wear out or become exhausted by making excessive demands on energy, strength, or resources" (Freudenberger, 1974, p.159). The Maslach Burnout Inventory assesses three symptom areas: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization of clients, and lack of feelings of personal accomplishment (Savicki & Cooley, 1982). Recommendations for dealing with burnout in the counseling profession included personal therapy, ample free private time (Watkins, 1983), stress-reduction techniques, development of an attitude of detached concern, and clarification of expectations and beliefs about counseling (Savicki & Cooley, 1982). Common themes exist in the symptoms of burnout and secondary traumatic stress (STS). Both may result in depression, insomnia, loss of intimacy with friends and family, and both are cumulative (Arvay & Uhlemann, 1996). The key difference lies in the cause of the symptoms. STS is the direct result of hearing emotionally shocking material from clients, while burnout can result from work with any client group (Iliffe & Steed, 2000). Secondary traumatic stress is defined as an outcome or risk that is related to engaging empathetically with another's traumatic material (Stamm, 1995). Symptoms, which are nearly identical to PTSD symptoms, include: * Reexperiencing the traumatic events in recollections or dreams * Avoidance or numbing of reminders of the event such as efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings and activities related to the situation, diminished affect, and loss of interest in significant activities * Persistent arousal such as having difficulty sleeping and concentrating, hypervigilance, and exaggerated startle response STS symptoms arise after being confronted with an event that involved death, injury, or extreme threat resulting in intense feelings of fear or helplessness. When symptoms last less than one month, they are considered normal reactions to crisis situations (Figley, 1995,1998). However, Figley (1995) suggests this cluster of symptoms becomes classified as a disorder, STSD, when experienced for more than 30 days following exposure to the traumatic event. Counselors in community agencies, private practice, and schools work with clients of all ages who have directly experienced trauma. These include experiences such as sexual assault, domestic violence, violent crime, war, traumatic "natural" catastrophes (e. …

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Investigation of the Maslach Burnout Inventory, the Organizational Socialization Inventory, and three measures of personal stress management in nurses in five Hong Kong hospitals indicated that favourable evaluations on the OSI domains yielded strong negative correlations with the burnout components.
Abstract: Several approaches to preventing burnout are compared. One hundred and fifty-four nurses in five Hong Kong hospitals completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), the Organizational Socialization Inventory (OSI), and three measures of personal stress management. Results indicated that favourable evaluations on the four OSI domains (job training, organizational understanding, coworker support and future prospects) yielded strong negative correlations with the burnout components. Also, the personal stress management measures had strong negative correlations with depersonalization and decreased personal accomplishment, but none were related to emotional exhaustion. Stepwise regression analyses indicated that training was the only (inverse) predictor of emotional exhaustion, whereas interpersonal skills and understanding were strong (inverse) predictors of depersonalization. Additionally, interpersonal skills and coworker support were excellent (inverse) predictors of decreased personal accomplishment. The findings are discussed in terms of their relevance to nursing administration.

Journal ArticleDOI
Ben Hannigan1, Deborah Edwards1, D. Coyle1, A. Fothergill1, Philip Burnard1 
TL;DR: Community mental health nurses in Wales were significantly more likely to have negative attitudes towards their clients if they were male; worked with an elderly care caseload; lacked job security; and had an unsupportive line manager, but CMHNs who had worked longer within the field of community mental health were morelikely to have positive attitudes.
Abstract: Stress and its outcomes are significant problems for mental health workers. Questionnaires were sent to 614 community mental health nurses (CMHNs) in Wales. Three hundred and one responded (49%). Of these, 283 completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (Maslach et al. 1996). Half of those who responded indicated that they were emotionally overextended and exhausted by their work. One quarter of respondents were found to possess negative attitudes towards their clients, and approximately one in seven experienced little or no sense of satisfaction with their work. Working in an urban environment and lacking a supportive line manager were indicators for higher emotional exhaustion. CMHNs were significantly more likely to have negative attitudes towards their clients if they: were male; worked with an elderly care caseload; lacked job security; and had an unsupportive line manager. However, CMHNs who had worked longer within the field of community mental health were more likely to have positive attitudes towards their clients. Those CMHNs who had not completed a specialist postqualifying education course and those who did not hold a supervisory or management position were found to have a lowered sense of personal satisfaction in their work. Those CMHNs who reported that they drank alcohol were more satisfied with their sense of personal accomplishments achieved in their work.

Book
01 Apr 2000
TL;DR: In this paper, an emotion-friendly serviced culture is built, where the customer is always emotional emotions matter valuing the emotionality in customer communications managing emotions begins with me positive emotional states add value shifting to positive emotions.
Abstract: Part 1 Building an emotion-friendly serviced culture: the customer is always emotional emotions matter valuing the emotionality in customer communications managing emotions begins with me positive emotional states add value shifting to positive emotions. Part 2 Choosing emotional competence: emotional labour or emotional competence? the challenges of burnout managing for emotional authenticity fostering positive interdependency the customer isn't always tight...hiring for emotional competence defining the emotional requirements of service jobs the necessity of ongoing education staff autonomy and emotional competence. Part 3 Maximising customer experience with empathy: satisfaction isn't good enough... anymore the challenge in measuring customer emotions the gift of empathy creating a climate for generous empathy broadcasting service successes measuring emotional reactions. Part 4 Viewing complaints as emotional opportunities: complaints - emotional opportunities fundamentals of complaints going from problems to partners empowering staff is more than giving permission creating a craving for feedback focusing on lifetime customer value talking to the emotionality of complaints turning complaints into customer learning opportunities taking complaints seriously eliminating blame! expanding the zone of tolerance when corporate customers complain. Part 5 Using emotional connections to increase customer loyalty: loyalty is behaviour with its roots in emotions emotional drivers of loyalty and value listening to the voices of loyal customers retaining customers by retaining staff going for impact that's where emotions reside communicating a message of fairness.