Showing papers on "Empirical research published in 1970"

Small Business and the New Issues Market for Equities

Abstract: A great deal of interest has been expressed by economists and policy-makers concerning the adequacy of the financing of small and, especially, new firms. This paper presents an empirical study of the adequacy of one particular source of funds—outside equity.

The Time Series Behavior of Earnings

Abstract: The time series behavior of earnings is an important area for empirical research because of its implications for related research in several areas of accounting and finance. Although many other examples could be provided, three "accounting" issues immediately come to mind: (1) income smoothing, (2) the relative forecast ability of alternative income measurements, and (3) interim reporting. The hypothesis that management uses discretionary accounting practices to smooth income was first posited by Gordon [21] and later tested by Gordon, Horwitz, and Meyers [22] and by Copeland [14] among others. As stated by Gordon, smoothing involves minimizing the deviations of reported income from some standard, where the standard is defined in terms of normal income. Normal income has never been precisely defined at the conceptual level, but in many cases it appears to have been used in the sense of the expected value of the process at a given point in time. A variety of models could be used, and in fact have been used, to assess the normal or expected value of income for a given period. Each model makes specific assumptions about the process generating income numbers. Any inferences drawn from empirical evidence regarding the existence of income smoothing (or the lack of it) are dependent upon the validity of the assumptions made about the underlying earnings process. Moreover, as shown later in the paper, for certain processes attempts to smooth income can have exactly the opposite effect. Yet the models used in the smoothing literature represent only a narrow range of the possible alternatives, little justification (either a priori or empirical) has been offered in their behalf, nor has there been any direct, rigorous investigation of the underlying nature of the earnings process itself.

Intergovernmental Organization in the Global System, 1815–1964:A Quantitative Description

Abstract: In any field of scholarly inquiry it is recognized that we must describe before we can hope toexplain. That is, we cannot account for the incidence of a certain class of events or conditions until we have identified and described those particular phenomena. If we agree that the current state of theory in the field of international organization leaves much to be desired, this fact may be partly due to our violation of this principle. Whether we deal with all international organizations over a lengthy period of time or a smaller subset based on such inclusion criteria as function or time period and whether we treat such organizations as the dependent, intervening, or independent variable, it is essential that we first acquire the data by which such organizations can be described. The major purpose of this article is to report the results of a first systematic effort to generate this data, so that we may move on in a cumulative fashion toward the empirical testing of propositions, models, or theories in which international organization is a major variable.

How Do Contact Systems Affect Regional Development

Abstract: The paper reports on theoretical and empirical studies of contact systems. It refines and extends the framework, and consequently the implications, of such systems. This framework forms a base for extensive empirical studies, the results of which are used to suggest how contact systems are resolved and how they affect the quantitative and qualitative aspects of regional development. The analysis aims to determine how control of the course of development can be exerted by planning bodies at various levels.

A New State-Level Panel of Annual Inequality Measures Over The Period 1916-2005

Abstract: This paper introduces a new panel of annual state-level income inequality measures over the ninety year period 1916-2005. Among many of the states inequality followed a U-shaped pattern over the past century, peaking both before the Great Depression and again at the time of the new millennium. The new panel reveals significant state-level variations, both before the year 1945, and regionally. While Northeastern states are strongly correlated with aggregate U.S. trends, we find many of the Western states have little overall correlation over the past century. The availability of this new panel may prove useful to empirical researchers interested in all aspects of income inequality, particularly given the panel's unusually large number of both time-series and cross-sectional observations INTRODUCTION As the threat of war loomed, the 16th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified on February 3rd 1913, giving the U.S. Congress the authority to levy a federal income tax. (1) Congress followed by adopting a 1% tax on incomes of more than $3,000, with a surtax of 6% on incomes of more than $500,000. Since 1916, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) has published income and tax statistics based on information reported on the Federal tax returns filed by U.S. individual taxpayers. These annual IRS publications provide unique and comprehensive access to the incomes of Americans over the past century. The primary innovation of this paper is to use IRS income tax filing data to construct a comprehensive state-level panel of annual income inequality measures (the panel may be obtained online at www.shsu.edu/eco_mwf/inequality.html). Although IRS income data has several important limitations, including the censoring of individuals below a threshold level of income, it has the unique feature of being available annually for each state since the year 1916. Current empirical research on income inequality has benefited primarily from the construction of two prior income inequality data sets: the international panel of Deininger and Squire (1996), and the U.S time-series data of Piketty and Saez (2003). Deininger and Squire (1996) offer inequality measures for a wide panel of nations with several time-series observations for each nation beginning in the year 1960. These time-series observations are spaced over multiple decades, with an average of six observations per nation in their high-quality subset of the panel. (2) Piketty and Saez (2003), on the other hand, construct a high-frequency U.S. time-series data set. Unlike the large-N small-T panel of Deininger and Squire, the Piketty and Saez data contains up to 85 annual observations for the U.S. covering the period 1913-1998. This paper seeks to contribute to the literature on income inequality by providing a third data alternative: a panel which covers an under-exploited unit of observation, U.S. states, and that is large in both cross-sections and time-series observations. While a panel of U.S. states is more homogenous than most cross-national panels, it still retains a useful degree of heterogeneity derived from each state's unique political/institutional history, and regional heritage. Moreover, a moderate amount of cross-sectional heterogeneity would appear to be a useful econometric feature, as the overwhelming cross-sectional heterogeneity in the international panel of Deininger and Squire (see Li, Squire, and Zou, 1998) has led to some econometric misuse, a point of emphasis in Quah (2001) and Partridge (2005). Our new state-level panel shows that many states followed a distinctive U-shaped pattern over the past century, with inequality peaking both before the Great Depression and again at the time of the new millennium. This trend is consistent with overall U.S. trends (see Piketty and Saez, 2003), though we do uncover sizable state-level variability over time. This variability is particularly large before the year 1945, and appears to reemerge during recent years. …

An Empirical Test of the Howard-Sheth Model of Buyer Behavior

Abstract: The Howard-Sheth buyer behavior model was cast in the form of a multiple-equation regression model for testing data on a grocery product in a specific market. Estimated structural parameters were generally consistent with the model’s predictions, but some goodness-of-fit measures were weak. The model was useful for organizing this analysis of consumer behavior, but the test put extreme pressure on the data. Considerably improved data collection techniques and procedures will be needed before the full empirical potential of such models will be realized.

Automation, size, and the locus of decision making: the cascade effect*

Abstract: The impact of automation on the centralization of decision making in organizations has recently become a problem of interest to sociologists, administrative scientists, and other students of organizations. Within this general problem, however, there exist numerous and varied operational definitions of both automation (which includes everything from semiautomatic machinery on the assembly line to electronic computers in offices) a'nd the degree of centralization of decision making (under which heading one can include such diverse variables as closeness of supervision, managerial ratio, and perceived influence).' Each combination of operational definitions constitutes a specific subproblem, and it is not at all clear at the present time whether the conclusions of one study are applicable to different types or degrees of automation, different types of decisions, and/or different types of organizations. While it is the aim of all comparative organization specialists to formulate general principles, such generalizations must ultimately be based on the systematic empirical study of particular processes in similar organizations. This paper, then, is an empirical study of the effects of electronic data-processing (EDP) equipment (computers) on the locus of authority for hiring decisions in one type of government organization. The type of automation, the kinds of decisions, and the type of organizations involved may all prove to be factors which differentiate my conclusions from those of other studies which bear on similar problems. However, given the fragmentary nature of related findings, one must begin by assuming that the conclusions of previous researchers are comparable and relevant to the present problem, in order to generate models which are capable of being tested with the data available. Previous research and theory suggest that the introduction of electronic dataprocessing equipment should lead to increased centralization of decision-making authority. The general argument favoring this conclusion is that automation makes centralized decision making possible by speeding up the processing of information, quantifying more information, and simplifying the organization of information. In large, complex organizations many decisions formerly had to be made at lower levels due to the belated and insufficient feedback of necessary information to top management. Since automation speeds up this feedback process, centralized decision making becomes a * This paper is the tenth report of the Comparative Organization Research Program, supported by grant GS-1528 from the National Science Foundation. This support is gratefully acknowledged. I also wish to thank Peter M. Blau for his helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.

Optimal Allocation of Competitive Marketing Efforts: An Empirical Study

Abstract: There is probably no more difficult and complex problem in marketing than the allocation of the total selling efforts of a firm among the various marketing instruments that influence sales, such as advertising, price, product quality, and personal selling. From a theoretical viewpoint, this problem has been neatly solved and the formal conditions defining an equilibrium have been stated in a number of ways.' Dorfman and Steiner, for example, have derived a general rule which is claimed to be a useful guide for marketing programming; this theorem, however, so far has received little empirical verification.2 Furthermore, implicit in the DorfmanSteiner formula is the assumption that there is no reaction of competitors to the change in marketing inputs made by the firm, while in real market situations mutual interdependence is the rule, since the sales of any firm are also a function of marketing inputs of its rivals.3 The neglect of competitive interdependence is of course a serious shortcoming. The purpose of this article is to show how the Dorfman-Steiner theorem can be expressed in terms of market shares, relative price, advertising, and quality, and how it can then be converted into operational concepts by means of regression analysis, so that attention can be turned to the study of competitors' reactions to change in marketing pressure and especially in advertising. These objectives will be pursued by studying the case of a household durable product sold on three markets of Western Europe characterized by an oligopolistic structure. This paper is divided into three parts. In the first one, a theoretical extension of the Dorfman-Steiner theorem that explicitly considers competitive effects is presented. In the second part, a description of the case studied, of the model, of the data utilized, and of the regression results is given. Using the optimization * Associate professor of marketing research, Louvain University, Belgium. Part of this paper has been presented at the 1968 fall conference of the American Marketing Association. I am grateful to Miss Leboutte for programming assistance, and to K. S. Palda for his advice and comments on an earlier draft. Responsibility for errors remains mine.

Theoretical Concepts and Observables

Abstract: properties of particular persons, places, or events.' Constructs used in a theory must be defined for that purpose, whereas observables usually need not be. The construct is not the same as the observable features of any particular event or object, nor is it simply an abstract representation of an observable. In the previous example, the sociologist might make assertions about differences in the construct status characteristic, and then say that occupation and sex are status characteristics. It would not be accurate to argue that status characteristics are "the same thing" as occupation and race, for there are many other possible status characteristics; similarly, it would not be accurate to say that status differences are the only "important" differences between men and women, or between clerks and laborers. All that would be claimed is that, for the present purpose of making specific theoretical statements, sex and occupation will be taken as indicators of status differences; the theoretical statements to be made will be statements about the construct "status characteristic," not about sex and occupation. If it should be the case that in some other time or culture sex and occupation are not status characteristics (as theoretically defined), then one could not use the theoretical statements about status characteristics to derive statements about sex and occupation. However, and very importantly, the statements about status characteristics could be made and could have empirical meaning independently of any such particular historical circumstance; that is, they would enable predictions for whatever observable characteristics happen to meet the definition of status characteristics in the different culture. The differences in orientation to theory construction which accompany use of these two types of concepts are enormous, and, we believe, are of fundamental importance to sociology. There is a crucial difference between being concerned with explaining the relations between observables and being concerned with explaining the relations between theoretical constructs. Part of the reason the difference is of such importance may be seen by examining the type of theoretical statements which would be offered as an adequate explanation for a finding. To a person who makes statements about observable concepts, the explanation of those statements usually is in terms of derivation from other statements about observables; to a person who makes statements about theoretical constructs, the explanation will be by derivation from other statements about theoretical constructs. The type of explana1Strictly speaking, any word used to represent an event or an object is an abstraction from reality and, hence, is not completely accessible to the senses. Thus it might appear that the distinction drawn here between observables and constructs is one of degree, rather than being absolute. However, in addition to being abstract, it is also required that constructs be explicitly or implicitly defined in the propositions of a theory; such definition is seldom necessary for observables. In addition, there are usually vast differences of degree of abstraction between concepts utilized in everyday speech and those used as theoretical constructs. Both for clarity of exposition, and because of the fundamental differences of orientation between the types of interests served by use of these two types of concepts, the distinction will be treated here as an absolute one. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.221 on Sun, 06 Nov 2016 05:32:14 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 750 AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW tion constructed will reflect the interest of the sociologist: whether he is primarily interested in observables for their own sake or is primarily interested in the development of constructs in scientific theory. These different types of concepts and interests have sometimes been described as being related to different "levels of generality." 2 However, there is no demonstrated justification for the implicit assumption that constructs and observables exist on any sort of continuum. Constructs and observables must be connected in the empirical testing and application of a theory (or in its development), but they are different in type-constructs are the result of thought; observables, of sensation. The distinction made above may be examined from these two points of view, using the finding by Strodtbeck et al., (1958:387) as the basis for an illustration of the difference between the empirical (observable) and the conceptual (construct) points of view: "Men, in contrast with women, and persons of higher-status, in contrast with lower-status, occupations have higher participation, influence, satisfaction, and perceived competence for the jury task." A sociologist with primarily an empirical orientation would be mainly interested in the observable concepts men and women, and in the observable concepts laborer, clerk, and proprietor which are summarized by Strodtbeck et al., with the general terms higher status occupations and lower status occupations.3 An empirical explanation for the finding would then be made in terms of observables. For example, the original authors offer as part of their explanation the statement: "We assume that business discipline and related experiences of higher-status occupations involve both substantive knowledge and interactional skills that may be used during the deliberation" (Strodtbeck et al., 1958:387). Of particular significance is the lack of abstraction of the concepts used, both in the original statement and in the statement offered to explain it; these concepts are very close to being immediately accessible to direct sensory experience. An empirical explanation consists in establishing a related set of antecedent conditions, statements about other previously occurring observables, which are then offered to explain the finding. By contrast, a sociologist with primarily a conceptual 4 focus of interest would be inclined to relate the original statement to a set of connected theoretical constructs. If, for example, he considered sex and occupation to be status characteristics, and had statements relating status characteristics to other theoretical constructs, which in turn were related to the observable interaction, then these more abstract statements would be offered as an explanation for the finding. In this type of explanation, the set of antecedent conditions clearly would be of secondary interest; the conditions would be noted only as necessary given conditions for application of the explanatory principles. Thus an empirical explanation differs from a conceptual explanation in the relative importance given to statements of observable antecedent conditions and to law-like assertions relating the concepts. In empirical explanation, primary attention is given to establishing a complete set of necessary antecedent conditions which are intended as a causal explanation of the findings. A conceptual explanation is far less concerned with establishing a set of particular observables as antecedent conditions, and is primarily concerned with precise and consistent formulation of the "laws." 5 For example, parts of the theory by Berger et al. (1966:39, 40) might be used to construct an explanation for the Strodtbeck, et al. finding: "If p [person] and o [other] possess differentially evaluated states of D [a diffuse status characteristic], and D is relevant to C [a specific task ability] . . .. p will assign states of C . . . that are bal2 See, for example, Stinchcombe, 1968, especially pp. 47-56. 3 These terms cannot be called "constructs" because they are not used in any explicit theory; no explicit definition exists either. Therefore, their usage and meaning are unconstrained, and they are unlikely to convey any unique or uniform meaning. 4Use of the terms "empirical" and "conceptual" is intended solely as a convenient notation. They are not intended to imply that those persons subscribing to the former do not conceptualize, or that those subscribing to the latter do not perform empirical tests. 5 For a similar view, see Hempel (1965:231-

Some Preliminary Findings from a Laboratory Experiment on the Usefulness of Financial Accounting Information to Security Analysts

Abstract: Accountants always have been interested in the information content of financial statements that firms periodically release to investors and other interested persons. Increasingly within the past decade, there has been a tendency to look to the user of financial statements for criteria to judge usefulness. This recognition of the user's importance has led to a number of empirical studies of the usefulness of accounting information.2 Our ori-

An Empirical Test of Interregional Input-Output Models: Estimation of 1963 Japanese Production

Abstract: As an economy develops, products sold in one region often are produced in another region of the country. This is one form of regional interdependence that can be analyzed within the framework of a spatially differentiated, general equilibrium trade model. For an analysis of regions within the American economy, one version of a large-scale multiregional input-output trade model will be implemented by the fall of 1970 at the Harvard Economic Research Project. The American economy will be separated into more than 30 regions and 60 industries. This will be the first time that a multiregional input-output model of this magnitude has been implemented for the United States. Many theoretical and empirical problems, however, must be solved before the model can be used for regional economic analyses on a routine basis. The American model will incorporate a gravity trade model. The author implemented a smallscale version of the multiregional gravity trade model two years ago using interregional data from Japan [10]. Since the American data are still being assembled, the Japanese data are again used in this paper to compare the gravity trade model with two other spatially differentiated, general equilibrium trade models: a fixed column coefficient model and a fixed row coefficient model. Wassily Leontief, in collaboration with Alan Strout, tested a gravity trade model for individual commodity shipments [5]. Gravity trade models have also been incorporated within a general equilibrium framework to analyze transportation investment in underdeveloped countries [4] [11] to analyze regional production in Argentina [1] and Japan [10], and to study transportation requirements in what is called the "Northeast corridor" of the United States.' Chenery [2] and Moses [8] used the column coefficient trade model in their separate efforts to test empirically a multiregional input-output model. This author previously tested the row coefficient trade model using fresh fruit and vegetable shipments [9], but this paper presents the first results of testing the row coefficient model within the overall inputoutput framework. The three models tested are fixed trade coefficient models. A linear programming model, such as the one tested by Moses for the United States [7], would be an obvious alternative. Crosshauling of commodities,2 however, cannot occur in linear programming models, and actual data on transportation costs are required. Since the aggregate nature of the interregional shipment data does produce crosshauls in the actual data and because consistent sets of transportation cost data are extremely difficult to obtain, a linear programming model was not included in the present study. In comparison with the extensive data on transportation costs and other regional data required for a multiregional linear programming model, only a limited amount of actual regional data is needed to implement any of the fixed coefficient models. The required sets of regional data are: base-year technical coefficients, base-year trade coefficients, and a set of final demands for the given year. The technical and trade coefficients are assumed to remain fixed from year to year.

Experimental Studies of Negro-White Relationships

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on experimental studies of Negro-White relationships. Starting with some empirical evidence of emotionality and constraint in face-to-face contacts with white peers, this chapter reviews a body of research on stress, and normative and comparative referent influences in various types of task setting. The experimental demonstrations of effects on Negro performance at relatively simple cognitive tasks must be regarded as only suggestive of underlying cognitive and motivational factors. An obvious gap in existing knowledge is the achievement behavior of white counterparts. Replications on whites are needed to establish definitely that the observed cross-racial influences on Negro performance really reflect a basic status phenomenon rather than mere effects of novelty or unfamiliarity. While the studies of biracial work teams support the status assumption, the need for direct empirical verification still exists. A comprehensive approach to the problem of how Negroes can bring about social change would have to include the study of the development and utilization of pressure resources, such as the skills requisite for traditional and nontraditional political action.

Research on research

Abstract: Problem areas currently receiving attention in the literature are discussed. It is suggested that considerable effort will be needed before much of the theory will be translated into practice. In certain areas it is argued that methods which have been proposed in the past have not been based on adequate descriptions of the real problems. A plea is made for more research into the research process and for more empirical testing and validation of the methods and procedures which have been proposed as aids to research managers.

The Engagement of Employees In The Strategy Process and Firm Performance: The Role of Strategic Goals and Environment

Abstract: Despite the call to engage employees in strategy making processes, empirical evidence that ties this engagement to financial performance has not been forthcoming. This study fills this gap by investigating whether involving employees in the strategy making process leads to a higher achievement of strategic goals and subsequently increased financial performance. Our findings suggest that the link between strategy making processes and financial performance may be underestimated unless strategic goals are included as a mediator. We also find environmental dynamism moderates the relationships we investigate. Under conditions of low dynamism, there is a stronger relationship between the engagement of employees and strategic goals related to innovation than under conditions of high dynamism. Conversely, strategic goals related to quality have a stronger relationship with engagement of employees under conditions of high dynamism when compared to conditions of low dynamism. ********** The importance of involving employees throughout an organization in the strategy making process has been recognized by traditional academic researchers (e.g. Burgelman, 1991; Floyd & Wooldridge, 2000; Hart, 1992), as well as consultants and practitioners (e.g. Hamel & Prahalad, 1994; Kaplan & Norton, 1996). One rationale behind the use of multi-level strategy processes is to provide employees with a better understanding of the company's strategy and build a stronger commitment to achieving the goals in the implementation of the strategy (Floyd & Wooldridge, 2000; Hamel & Prahalad, 1994; Kaplan & Norton, 1996). A company's strategy can also be facilitated by employee involvement because knowledge and information relevant to strategy making is dispersed throughout the organization (Miller & Monge, 1986). Cognitive model theorists (Anthony, 1978; Frost, Wakely & Ruh, 1974) propose that when employees have more complete knowledge about their jobs and operations they can provide better information. Involvement in strategy making also allows employees to know more about implementation of decisions. For example, ideas that support new innovations often come from those employees that are in direct contact with the customer (Von Hippel, 1988). In order for innovation to be a source of competitive advantage for a company, there must be organizational processes that allow these ideas to be brought forward and integrated into the activities of the company (Burgelman, 1983). Despite the call for more investigations into the relationship between strategy making process and firm performance (Chakravarthy & Doz, 1992; Huff & Reger, 1987), there has been relatively little empirical research on this link, especially when strategy making processes involve multiple levels of the organization (Floyd & Wooldridge, 2000; Rajagopalan, Rasheed, & Datta, 1993). While the intensity and use of employee involvement practices is on the increase, the strategic impact of such practices has not been adequately investigated. This may be because most studies focus on narrow definitions of employee involvement (Ledford & Lawler, 1994). Our study uses a broad definition of employee involvement in strategy process to include information sharing, decision making, experimentation, understanding of company goals, and iterative strategy making that involves multiple levels of the organization. A broad definition captures the variety of involvement ranging from information sharing to actual decision making. We suggest that aspects of such involvement should relate to achievement of strategic goals. The two types of strategic goals tested in this study are quality and innovation. It is suggested that both require employee involvement and empowerment to make decisions (Lawler, Mohrman, & Ledford, 1995; Burgelman, 1991). In addition, these goals often create a tension between striving to have organizational processes that ensure consistent quality and organizational processes that facilitate creativity and innovation (Brown & Eisenhardt, 1998; Jelinek & Schoonhoven, 1990; Miron, Erez, & Naveh, 2004). …

Research on Research: A Decade of Quantitative and Field Research on International Organizations

Abstract: Writing in 1966, I examined the degree to which changes in research methods in political science are affecting research on international organizations and made some suggestions for extending the use of more rigorous empirical methods in international organization research. This effort stimulated a desire to make a more systematic inquiry. Reported in that paper are the results of a systematic survey of fourteen journals and eleven international relations readers which have been published over the past decade. The survey identified some 300 works on international organizations, 61 of which are based on quantitative analysis and field work. This study reports data obtained from coding these works on nine characteristics and provides examples of major findings. The purpose is to help the community of scholars engaged in this work to see where our collective activity is heading in the hope that this will enable us to make more effective use of the limited skills, time, and money available.

The value of time in transport planning: a review

Abstract: A FRAMEWORK FOR ESTIMATING PERSONAL VALUES OF WORKING AND NON-WORKING TIME TO BE USED FOR PREDICTING FUTURE TRAVEL AND APPRAISAL OF TRANSPORT INVESTMENT BY COST/BENEFIT METHODS IS TO BE ESTABLISHED. SOME THEORIES OF EVALUATION ARE DESCRIBED. THE MARGINAL PRODUCT CONCEPT IS APPROPRIATED FOR WORKING TIME, BUT NON-WORKING TIME VALUES SHOULD BE DERIVED BEHAVIORALLY FROM ANALYSIS OF REVEALED PREFERENCES. A DISCUSSION ON MEASUREMENT METHODS FOLLOWS WITH PARTICULAR REGARD TO ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES AND CHOICE SITUATIONS FOR NON-WORKING TIME. FOLLOWING A DISCUSSION OF EMPIRICAL WORK DONE IN UK AND ELSEWHERE, A NUMBER OF PROPOSITIONS ABOUT TIME VALUES ARE ADVANCED. THE USE OF TIME VALUES, A COMPREHENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY, AND A DETAILED REVIEW OF SELECTED EMPIRICAL STUDIES ARE PRESENTED. /RRL(A)/

Assessing the Performance Impacts of Information Systems From the Resource-Based Perspective: An Empirical Test of the Indirect Effect of the IS

Abstract: Research into the strategic impacts of information systems (IS) from the resource-based view of competitive advantage has increasingly embraced the indirect effect of IS on firm performance; that is, IS interact with other complementary organizational resources in influencing firm performance. Using both survey and archival data, this study set out to test the indirect effect of IS and determine the complementary organizational resources contributing to IS impacts on firm performance. The results provide additional evidence in support of the indirect performance effect of IS. Specifically, the study found that the performance impacts of IS arose from their interactions with firm-specific knowledge, information, vertical integration and related diversification that complemented IS. Introduction Over the past decade, the resource-based view of competitive advantage has emerged as a popular approach to examining the strategic roles of information systems (IS) (Mata et al., 1995; Powell & Dent-Micaleff, 1997; Lado & Zhang, 1998; Bharadwaj, 2000; Byrd, 2001; Kearns & Lederer, 2003; Wade & Hulland, 2004; Zhang, 2005). One critical issue in the resource-based inquiry of the strategic impacts of IS is whether IS alone can lead to competitive advantage or they must work in conjunction with other organizational resources in order to provide strategic benefits (Wade & Hulland, 2004). The former suggests a direct effect of IS on firm performance, whereas the latter implies an indirect effect of IS. While researchers have increasingly embraced the latter by arguing that IS complemented by certain organizational resources may lead to competitive advantage and superior performance (Feeny & Ives, 1990; Clemons & Row, 1991; Powell & Dent-Micaleff, 1997; Lado & Zhang, 1998; Bharadwaj, 2000), there has been relatively less empirical attention to testing the indirect effect of IS. Since the indirect effect of IS has become more and more influential in current thinking of how to evaluate and manage IS resources (Powell & Dent-Micaleff, 1997; Wade & Hulland, 2004), more empirical evidence is needed to ascertain this effect. Furthermore, even though the indirect effect of IS generally exists, we still don't know enough about what specific organizational resources complement IS in influencing a firm's competitive position or performance (Wade & Hulland, 2004). While the normative literature proposes a number of potential organizational complements to IS (Feeny & Ives, 1990; Clemons & Row, 1991; Kettinger et al., 1994; Powell & Dent-Micaleff, 1997), the performance impacts of many of those complementary resources have not been assessed in prior empirical research (Kettinger et al., 1994; Powell & Dent-Micaleff, 1997). Discerning the influence of different IS complements on the IS-performance relationship would then increase our knowledge of what represents a relevant set of complementary resources that interact with IS in affecting firm performance (Wade & Hulland, 2004). The purpose of this study was twofold. First, it provided another assessment of the indirect effect of IS on firm performance. Second, by testing the relationships between three sets of firm-specific complements to IS and firm performance, the study sought to empirically determine what organizational resources complement IS in influencing firm performance. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The next section reviews the indirect effect of IS within the resource-based research on IS impacts, as well as the existing empirical evidence. This is followed by an examination of the potential performance impacts of three types of organizational resources (unique organizational culture and structure, unique vertical integration and related diversification, and unique knowledge and information) that complement IS. The methodology section describes the empirical analysis, including the sample and data collection procedure, the measurement of the variables of interest, and the results. …

Service Classification and Management Challenges

Abstract: Coincident with the increasing importance of services as a primary component of the economies in developed countries, a number of theoretically derived service typologies have been developed, yet there has been virtually no empirical validation of the proposed ideas. We conducted a survey of 273 managers in four service industries (Fast Food, Auto Repair, Retail Sales, Legal Services) to test how management challenges differ across different service industries. We also empirically tested a widely accepted service typology developed by Schmenner (1986) within the context of management challenges. Discriminant analysis was utilized to test the degree to which companies can be classified into groupings similar to the Schmenner's service process matrix according to empirical data rather than anecdotal observations. Our findings indicate that the while the service process matrix can be partially validated using empirical data, the distinctions between various industries are much "fuzzier" in practice. Different service industries can be classified according to empirical data, but misclassifications do occur. In particular, misclassifications are most prevalent where two service industries share a common characteristic as described by the service process matrix. Introduction As the post-industrial economy evolves, the service sector continues to increase in importance, both in terms of its contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP) of all advanced economies and in terms of the percentage of workforce employed in services. For example, it has been predicted that the service sector will account for more than 88% of the workforce in the United States by the year 2001 (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1994). Accordingly, the last decade has witnessed an increased emphasis on teaching and research of service management issues by business schools and professional organizations. In response to the increased importance of services, numerous articles on issues related to the effective management of service operations have appeared in both academic and practitioner based publications (for example, Chase & Hayes; 1991, Karmarker & Pitbladdo, 1995; Kellogg & Nie, 1995; Lovelock, 1992; Roth & Van Der Velde, 1991). Several of these articles present typologies of services and provide directions for improving quality, productivity and operating efficiency, however relatively little has been done to empirically test the proposed ideas. This article presents an empirical assessment of the management challenges proposed by one of the widely accepted service typologies -- the service process matrix (SPM) developed by Schmenner (1986). We gathered data relating to management challenges experienced by managers of four different types of service industries (Fast Food, Auto Repair, Retail Sales and Legal Services). These services were chosen because they differ in terms of various attributes of service delivery systems as suggested by the SPM. Based on empirical data collected from 273 managers, we show how management challenges differ across four types of services. In addition, we provide an empirical test of how well the four types of industries described by Schemnner (1986) can be classified using empirical data. The remainder of the article is divided into four sections. First, we present a review of various service typologies; Next we describe the research methods used in the study; Third, we present the results of our analysis; and Finally, we present a discussion of the implications of the findings from this research. Service Typologies This section offers a review of various service classifications schemes that have been developed, as well as a discussion of their relative strengths and weaknesses (Table 1). This review is provided in order to illustrate that while a variety of insightful conceptual typologies have been developed, there is a need to provide empirical validation in order to identify whether these typologies accurately model reality, as well as identify any shortcomings. …

My life after death: connecting the field, the findings and the feelings

Abstract: This paper is an account of an emotional journey that took place alongside an ethnographic study of the contemporary cemetery landscape. It seeks to highlight the importance of conducting empirical research as a 'rite of passage', leading to the role of a researcher, by examining the connection between data, the human researcher, and the analysis. Furthermore, this paper argues that the emotionality of the research process needs to be incorporated into discussions of methodology and analysis to enable researchers to produce high-quality social research.

Developing Criterion-Referenced Tests.

Abstract: DOCUMENT RESUME 24 TM 000 023 Jackson, Rex Developing Criter,ion-Referenced Tests ERIC Clearinghouse on Tests, Measurement, and Evaluation, Princeton, NJ Office of Education (DHEW) , Washington, DC Bureau of Research Jun 70 OEC-0-70-3797 (519) 18p EDRS Price MF-$025 HC-$100 *Criterion Referenced Tests, Item Analysis, *Measurement Techniques, Norm Referenced Tests, *Test Construction, Test Interpretation, Test Reliability, *Tests, Test Validity Present definitions of the criterion-referenced test are discuL,ed, insuffiiences noted, and a new definition proposed Some examples of criterion-referenced tests are examined and used to educe some general principles for the development of such tests The utility of item form processes is assessed It is suggested that the difficulty of objectively defining a test construction process is directly proportional to the complexity of the behavior the test is designed to assess Problems and doubts with regazd to the development of criterion-referenced tests for complex behavior domains are noted In addition, some empirical methods for dealing with item analysis, test reliability, and test validity difficulties are advanced (DG) tr US DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY FEWREGENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY DEVELOPING CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS Rex Jackson Test Development Division Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ

Organizational goals and quality of medical care: evidence from comparative research on hospitals.

Abstract: Reviewed here are available empirical studies bearing on the problem of whether variations in the commitment of hospitals to certain goals-teaching, research, profit, and service-are associated in predictable ways with variations in the quality of medical care rendered in the hospitals, as indicated by assessments of the process or outcome of care. The evidence suggests that some systematic relationships do exist, particularly with regard to teaching goals. Propositions formulating the relationships are advanced, and the need for additional research is stressed.

Short run determinants of commercial bank investment portfolios: an empirical analysis

Abstract: UNTIL RECENTLY, discussion of monetary policy has focused on the overall reaction of the banking system to changes in policy variables originated by the central bank. Relatively little attention has been given to the complex factors that govern an individual bank's response to changes in monetary policy. Thus, while theories of financial behavior are implicitly formulated in terms of individual decision-making units, the attention of monetary research has been directed towards the behavior of aggregates. With the possible exception of a recent study by Bryan and Carleton [1], the testing of banking theory has generally been conducted in terms of aggregate demand and supply functions for money [2, 12]. Although the use of aggregate data in empirical research is valid, there comes a stage in the empirical analysis where some more information on the behavior of individual units is needed. This study departs from the general trend in that it concentrates on the behavior of the individual bank. Its purpose is to obtain empirical estimates of the parameters of a simple model of banks' asset choice. The model focuses attention on short run changes in the composition of the investment portfolio. Specifically it is argued that the demand for liquid assets is a function of asset size, interest rates and deposit instability. Our purpose is to estimate the sensitivity of liquid asset changes in bank portfolio to changes in these exogenous variables.

Transactions, Community, and International Political Integration

Abstract: One of the most confused issues in the theory of international political integration remains that of the role of transactions—whether community bonds among peoples can be used as indicators or predictors of political integration. This chapter reviews the nature of integration and the role of transactions. It is clear that much remains to be done in refining theory about political integration. These efforts must attend both to deductive theory-building and to empirical testing.

Speech communication research: One world or two?

Abstract: Internecine struggles between rhetoricians and behavioralists obscure a growing concern for the future relevance and significance of our discipline. Investigators are urged in their work to remain closer to the actual experience of communicating. The tentativeness of empirical research, combined with the commitment of value inquiry, is proposed as a strategy against abstractionism in speech communication research.

Some Social Correlates of Student Drug Use

Abstract: It has been widely assumed that student drug users are differ ent from non-using students, and certain terms, such as "alien ated," have been employed to characterize the drug users. But until recently, little empirical research has ben done to specify the exact differences between the two groups. This study com pares drug users and non-users sampled from the student body of a private high school in New York City. The two groups are compared across five areas of social involvement: family, school, religion, peer group, and politics. The drug users are found to be less involved than the non-users in family, school, and religion, but more involved in cultural activities with peers and more in volved in politics. Studies conducted in other parts of the country have reported similar findings, indicating that a general pattern of differences between drug users and non-users is emerging.