Showing papers on "Empirical research published in 1979"

Superior–subordinate communication: The state of the art.

Abstract: Based on a review of the literature, empirical research in the area of superiorsubordinate communication is classified into nine topical categories and critically examined. Inspection of this literature suggests that researchers have focused the majority of their attention on studying (a) the effects of power and status on superior-subo rdinate communication, (b) trust as a moderator of superior-subo rdinate communication, and (c) semantic-information distance as a source of misunderstand ing in superior-subo rdinate communication. It is concluded that future research should increasingly be developmental and longitudinal in nature and should take into greater consideration the effects situational variables have on communication in the superior-subordinate dyad. Status hierarchy is inherent in the nature of purposeful organizations. As Redding (1972) observes, within organizations "there are 'superiors' and 'subordinates'—even though these terms may not be expressly used, and even though there may exist fluid arrangements whereby superior and subordinates roles may be reversible" (p. 18). How superiors and subordinates interact and communicate to achieve both personal and organizational goals has been an object of investigation by social scientists for most of the 20th century. Empirical research examining superior-subordinate communication is diverse, is strewn across a multitude of disciplines, lacks coherent organization and classification, and in general, has not received sufficient review and interpretation as a body of literature. The present article attempts to alleviate this confusion by reviewing, classifying, interpreting, and providing directions for future research in the area of organizational communication that is loosely termed superior-subordinate communication. This article focuses on empirical research solely in the domain of organizationa l communication. To avoid generalizations from communication research outside of the orga

Research settings in industrial and organizational psychology: Are findings in the field more generalizable than in the laboratory?

Abstract: The authors analyzed for content all the empirical articles from the 1966, 1970, and 1974 volumes of the Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, and Personnel Psychology to determine the types of organizations, subjects, and dependent measures studied Contrary to the common belief that field settings provide for more generalisation of research findings than laboratory settings do, field research appeared as narrow as laboratory research in the actors, settings, and behaviors sampled Indeed, industrial-organisational psychology seems to be developing in the laboratory a psychology of the college student, and in the field, a psychology of the self-report of male, professional, technical, and managerial employees in productiveeconomic organizations The authors suggest that coordinated strategies of research in both laboratory and field settings are needed to construct an externally valid industrial and organizational psychology Should industrial and organizational psychologists conduct their research in laboratory settings? For many industrial and organizational psychologists, the answer to this question would be an emphatic no, but others would defend the laboratory as a legitimate setting for research (Fromkin & Streufert, 1976; Weick, 196S) The relative merits of laboratory and field settings have been debated within many areas of psychology, including comparative psychology (Miller, 1977), environmental psychology (Proshansky, 1976), social psychology (Ellsworth, 1977; McGuire, 1967; Ring, 1967), race relations (Fromkin & Ostrom, 1974), and perception (Gibson, 1966) Two common criticisms of laboratory research are that laboratory settings are susceptible to experimental artifacts (Rosenthai & Rosnow, 1969; Silverman, 1977) and serious ethical problems (Kelman, 1967) Although these two criticisms have been debated in numerous articles and have not been resolved entirely, Fromkin and Streufert have argued persuasively that artifacts and ethical problems also exist in field settings and are not unique to the laboratory A third criticism of laboratory research is that the artificiality of the laboratory imposes severe restraints on the external validity of findings Even those critics who concede that laboratory settings provide for more elimination of alternative interpretations of results than the typical field settings do are often doubtful that one can generalize findings from the laboratory to predict, understand, or control real-world phenomena A perusal of the recent Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Dunnette, 1976) reveals the differences of opinion that exist among industrial and organizational psychologists with regard to the generalizability of laboratory research Ohapanis (1976) observed that "most laboratory experiments in psychology have only very limited relevance for the solution of practical Vol 34, No 2, 141-150 Portions of this article were presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, May 1977 The authors' names are listed in alphabetical order, reflecting equal contributions by both to the design, implementation, analysis, and writing of this study The authors thank John Dzamba, Claude Mattox, Brian Robinson, and William Wratten for their assistance with the data analysis Requests for reprints should be sent to Robert L Dipboye, Rice University, Department of Psychology, Houston, Texas 77001 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • FEBRUARY 1979 • 141 Copyright 1979 by the American Psychological Association, Inc 0003-066X/79/3402-0141$0075 problems Unsuspected interactions in real life may nullify or even reverse conclusions reached in the laboratory" (p 730) Similarly, Bouchard (1976) observed that "laboratory experiments seldom deal adequately with boundary conditions or context factors and therefore, lend themselves to unjustified and often erroneous extrapolations" (p 364) In contrast with these arguments, Fromkin and Streufert (1976) argued that "the artificiality of laboratories is being unjustly elevated to the status of a fatal flaw" (p 433) Furthermore, they asserted that instead of reinforcing the myth that laboratory settings seldom yield data which are relevant to real world problems, it is proposed that laboratory settings merely impose identifiable limitations upon the range of criterion situations to which a particular set of laboratory findings may be practically applied, (p 442) Despite the firm convictions held by proponents and critics, many of the arguments for and against the external validity of laboratory research are based on stereotypes rather than data One such stereotype has been that a field setting, because it is natural to the subject and not contrived, automatically provides for more generalization of results than an artificial laboratory setting does However, the problem of external validity is one of making inferences not only from settings but from actors and the behaviors of these actors (Runkel & McGrath, 1972) Critics of laboratory research often place inordinate weight on the setting, in discussions of external validity, to the neglect of actors and their behavior For instance, some have assumed that because the setting in field research is typically an actual organization, data collected in such a setting must be more generalizable to other organizations than are data collected in the laboratory However, there are differences among organizational settings that are as large as the differences that exist between an organizational setting and a laboratory Rather than assuming that field research in the abstract is more generalizable, there is a need to determine the types of organizations with which field researchers have been concerned The belief that laboratory research in industrial and organizational psychology is less externally valid than field research also results from the tendency to infer from the setting characteristics of the actors and their behaviors Such inferences are often without empirical support For example, the assumption has been made that field research involves subjects who are more representative of the working population than the college students typically used in the laboratory But is this assumption correct? Instead of rejecting laboratory research on the basis of an untested stereotype, we need to examine more carefully who the participants are in laboratory and field research Another assumption has been that research in field settings has as the focus of investigation natural behavior, defined by Tunnell (1977) as behavior that is not established or maintained for the sole or primary purpose of conducting research; the behavior is part of the person's existing response repertoire Whether the procedure used to record the behavior is human or mechanical (eg, videotapes, audiotapes, explicit behavioral checklists) the essential naturalness of the observation is maintained Self-reports should not be considered natural behaviors unless they are made by the person in real life (pp 426-427) The critics of laboratory research often seem to assume that the dependent variables examined in the field are more natural and thus more externally valid than the dependent variables examined in the laboratory But what are the dependent variables used in laboratory and field research? Again, arguments for and against the external validity of laboratory research have been based on assumptions rather than data The issue of the relative external validity of laboratory and field settings is an important one not only to industrial and organizational psychologists but to all psychologists conducting laboratory and field research or utilizing the findings of such research A more objective analysis of the issue of external validity is needed than has appeared in previous literature In this article, our intent was to test empirically some of the assumptions underlying the belief that findings from field research are more generalizable to other settings, behaviors, and actors than are the findings of laboratory research Of course, one cannot conclude that any one study or set of studies possesses complete external validity (Campbell & Stanley, 1963, p 17), but one can discuss the relative limits that seem to exist for generalizing findings from research using different strategies The intent of this article is to assess empirically the limits that seem to exist for recent laboratory and field research in industrial and organizational psychology In order to achieve this objective, articles in three major journals were analyzed for content to determine the types of organizations, persons, and behaviors studied 142 • FEBRUARY 1979 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST

A Conceptual Framework for the Empirical Analysis of Peasants

Abstract: To assist in the design and analysis of the many empirical studies currently conducted on peasants and their changing status in third world countries, a conceptual framework is presented and illustrated with data from Cajamarca in Peru. The framework identifies the key variables to be measured and processes to be analyzed at three levels: the organization of the peasant household in terms of production, circulation, and reproduction; the mechanisms of surplus extraction; and the class position and differentiation of groups of peasants within particular social formations.

A Critique of Exchange Rate Treatment in Agricultural Trade Models

Abstract: The recent theoretical and empirical literature on the role of exchange rates in agricultural prices and trade is reviewed. Specifically, alternative specifications of the exchange rate in excess demand functions are considered. Results show that the specification most common in recent theoretical and empirical work is unnecessarily restrictive and may bias the resulting analysis. Several less restrictive specifications for empirical research are suggested.

Inter-generational Transmission of Inequality: An Empirical Study of Wealth Mobility

Abstract: Although much research has been done on the intra-generational distribution of income and wealth, much less work has been done on inter-generational effects; research in both areas is needed for a complete understanding of the subject. In addition to the study of factors that determine the size distribution of income and wealth, economists should also be interested in the degree of inter-generational mobility that is exhibited in an economy: the extent to which there is "equal opportunity" for children whose parents' economic position is dissimilar. This issue of mobility is clearly distinct from the issue of equality. For any degree of inequality we can have a relatively static society in which children always assume their parents' position, or a highly mobile society in which the position of the child is unrelated to that of his parents. The degree of inter-generational mobility is determined by market, institutional and genetic factors, among others. The systems that provide education and care for children, distribute public expenditures and transmit material inheritance all influence mobility across generations. This paper presents empirical estimates of the relationship between the material wealth held by parents and that held by their children in the United States. The line of research pursued here was in part inspired by the work of Harbury (1962). The data comes from probate records and therefore records wealth-holding at a specific point in the life-cycle i.e. at death. The sample is described in Section I. Some simple empirical relationships are presented in Section II. In Section III regression analysis is used to indicate the degree of wealth mobility across one generation. The regression equations can be considered "reduced form" equations generated by a more complex structural equation system. An example of such a system is presented in Section IV.

Research on Training Counselors and Clinicians

Abstract: Graduate and mid-career training and supervision are important processes for all human service professions. Practitioners, trainers, and researchers must all acquire and consistently utilize certain skills, attitudes, and knowledge in order to function effectively during their professional careers. Although process and outcome research in psychotherapy and counseling has been extensively reported (e.g., Bergin & Garfield, 1971; Luborsky, Chandler, Auerbach, Cohen, & Bachrach, 1971) parallel research on training counselors and clinicians was almost nonexistent ten years ago (Matarazzo, Wiens, & Saslow, 1966), and rather sparse even five years ago (Matarazzo, 1971). At present, however, the literature encompasses over 100 empirical studies. Although the methods, curricula, and objectives utilized in training are inseparably interdependent in practice, this paper will focus on training methods because that research literature alone merits thorough review before the enormous task of tying together all the research concerning training's many component processes can be undertaken. Furthermore, research investigating the effects of different training curricula, curriculum content sequences, and curricular materials is, unfortunately, virtually nonexistent in the counselor/clinician training literature (Johnson & Sribbe, 1975; Wexler, 1976). Concerning training objectives, the crucial question of what skills, attitudes, and knowledge

Meaning in the urban environment

Abstract: Part One: Current ideas and theories about the meaning in the urban environment 1 Introduction 2 Review of the literature 3 State of the theory Part Two: Empirical Studies in the Psychosemiology of Architecture 4 Pyschosemiology and the recognition of different functional building types 5 Empirical studies of connotation in architecture 6 Synopsis of research as a whole

Price adjustment and market structure

Abstract: The present thesis is concerned with the relationship between price adjustments in response to changes in economic conditions and industrial market structure. Its point of departure consists of abandoning the time-honoured assumption that firms in industrial markets act as if they were price takers. Instead, attention is focused on the determinants of price adjustment in a more realistic industrial setting. Following the introductory analysis, a synthesis is proposed between the long-standing "administered prices" hypothesis, and the recent theories associated with the "new view" of Keynes. It is suggested that both approaches have common theoretical underpinnings which are themselves closely related to this thesis. The main body of analysis consists of a theoretical and an empirical investigation. In the theoretical section, two distinct aspects of the price adjustment decision are examined. The first concerns the comparative statics of adjustment and involves an analysis of the factors which determine the magnitude of price adjustments following changes in cost and demand. Moreover, the influence of market structure on the adjustment process is examined through its impact on the costs of search which are associated with the pricing decision. The second, and no less important aspect of the theoretical investigation concerns the dynamics of price adjustment. The object of this analysis is to assess the impact of market structure on the rate of price adjustment over time. The two hypotheses developed in the theoretical section are put to extensive empirical testing. The quantitative analysis involves mainly time-series and cross-section regressions, but other statistical techniques such as rank correlation and covariance tests are also employed. The first of these hypotheses is that price adjustments in response to short-run changes in demand could be attenuated relative to those occasioned by changes in marginal costs. The rationale for this asymmetry is based on the unequal impact of search costs. The empirical findings, whilst by no means conclusive, do not contradict this view. The second hypothesis suggests that a high degree of industrial concentration will be associated with high rates of price adjustment. This is because concentration facilitates the process of dynamic co-ordination amongst firms by reducing the costs of search. The empirical results come out strongly in favour of this hypothesis. The consequential implications regarding "administered prices" and the management of inflation are explored in the concluding chapter of this thesis.

Designing Instructional Text

Abstract: The context of the book and its contents are outlined; its aim of providing guidelines derived from empirical research for the design of instructional text is emphasized One of the book's particular proposals-structuring of text by the controlled use of vertical space-is examined, and the relative merits of vertical and of horizontal space are discussed The review then presents the book's arguments from research evidence for certain design practices These arguments are found to be, typically, ease of production and cost-benefit, rather than the justification of benefit for the user The book is held to be putting forward a programme-not merely a set of guidelines-the chief characteristic of which is simplicity of form, in contrast to what the book sees as the irrational forms of “traditional” typography The review considers some possible virtues of “traditional” typography, and, in the design of some tabular matter, alternatives are suggested to the approaches of the book and of “traditional” typography In a concluding evaluation of the book, the attempt to provide for typographic design generally applicable to research findings is questioned Alternative paths for research in this field are suggested

The Export Decision: An Empirical Study of Firm Behavior

Abstract: In this paper, the author examines variations in the export-related behavior of 148 manufacturing firms in the Buffalo SMSA. Using corporate-level data, two interrelated models are formulated to es...

A disaggregate store-choice model of spatial decision-making

Abstract: Empirical testing of a decision model yields insights concerning the ways in which shoppers process information about grocery stores. Confirming hypotheses from the literature on consumer preferences, the results show that respondents are primarily concerned with quality and price of merchandise and that behavior is directly linked to derived utility measures. Clustering of the subjects discloses subtle differences among consumer groups in their approaches to evaluating the attributes of grocery stores.

Ratio Measurement and Theoretical Inference in Social Research

Abstract: This paper attempts to rectify false suspicions that have developed among some regarding ratio correlations. If researchers are theoretically concerned with relationships between ratio variables that contain common components (e.g., population density and suicide rate) or between a ratio variable and one of its components (e.g., percent urban and population size of nations) correlation analysis will not normally yield spurious results. Spuriousness becomes a problem primarily when the researcher is interested in relationships between component variables which are standardized by a common term for reasons extraneous to the hypothesis. Even here, though, it is not the empirical correlation that is spurious, but possible inferences one might draw about the relationship between the component variables from the observed correlations between the ratio-standardized variables. Assessment of suggested alternatives to ratio correlation indicates that ratio measurement sometimes provides conceptual, interpretive, and statistical advantages over alternatives critics have proposed. Because uncritical acceptance of faulty research poses a constant danger in the social sciences, we are routinely reminded to be diligent in evaluating possible methodological shortcomings in empirical studies. But an equally serious problem arises when criticisms of existing methodological procedures are automatically accepted without similar evaluation and reflection. Published methodological critiques not only often influence the type and direction of future methodologies used in studying a phenomenon, but they also can have a back-to-the-drawing board impact that leads many readers to discount the findings of previous studies and initiate new

Empirical research in accounting

Abstract: Weekly Assignments Each week, we will read two research studies (a detailed schedule is provided below). One student will be assigned to each of two formal roles for each paper: (a) summarize and (b) critique each paper. The critique should target fundamental issues. While I encourage you to write out your thoughts, these roles are intended to spur discussion and there is no requirement to hand in any work. All students are expected to contribute to the discussion regardless of whether they have been assigned a specific role.

Detection of deception in the employment context: a review and critical analysis

Abstract: Empirical research on the validity of the polygraph, voice stress analysis, and paper and pencil instruments as mechanisms for the detection of deception is reviewed. It is noted that while these devices have their greatest use in the employment context, virtually all research has been done in an actual or simulated criminal investigation context. Three separate uses of devices for the detection of deception in the employment context are identified, namely, pre-employment screening, periodic screening of current employees, and investigation into a specific theft. Differences between each of these uses and the criminal investigation context are identified, and issues limiting the generalizability of research findings from one context to another are raised. Among the issues are the effects of a low base rate of guilt on accuracy, the effects of making multiple judgments on overall accuracy, and the potential for racial or ethnic bias in judgments of guilt or innocence.

Preliminaries to a psychology of inference

Abstract: This paper presents a general pretheoretical framework for the study of inference. The framework is that of Social Judgment Theory which has been developed from Brunswik's probabilistic functionalism. The first section discusses the fundamental theoretical ideas and methodological principles. Important among these is the stress on the need to study the relation between the cognitive system and the inference task using parallel concepts for describing the cognitive system and the task, the theory of cognitive tasks, and the methodology of formal representative sampling. The second section describes a series of experimental paradigms developed from the basic ideas discussed in the first section. The third, and final section gives some examples of actual empirical research, mainly research concerned with the hypothesis testing process by means of which subjects learn inference tasks, studies on cognitive skills in using various rules for making inferences, new conceptions of feedback, research on the effects of feedforward, and interpersonal learning.

Heart rate and blood pressure biofeedback: II. A review and integration of recent theoretical models.

Abstract: The theoretical models put forth separately by Bremer, Lang, and Schwartz to account for the data on biofeedback and cardiovascular responses are summarized and evaluated in light of recent empirical studies. Although each model makes some use of the idea that learning to control heart rate, particularly heart rate acceleration, is like motor skills learning, each model also emphasizes different sets of factors or variables. An attempted integration of these three models is presented.

The Efficacy of Trading Suspensions: A Regulatory Action Designed to Prevent the Exploitation of Monopoly Information

Abstract: WHILE MOST LAWYERS, government officials and security regulators would find it difficult to conceive of an efficient and equitable stock market without existing security regulation, a number of brokers, investors and economists would not find it difficult to do so. Although the merits of each viewpoint have been debated (and specified in an efficient market framework in [23]), the efficacy of current regulation can only be determined by empirical tests. However, to date, most of the empirical research on security regulation has dealt with the role played by the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and the United States Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934 in improving the economic performance of American security markets [for exceptions, see 23, 24, 25, 34, 35]. More

Wife Occupational Superiority and Marital Troubles: An Examination of the Hypothesis.

Abstract: Implicit in much theoretical literature on marital relations in dual-career families is the hypothesis that marital stress and dissatisfaction would be attendant if working wives were to be higher in occupational prestige than their husbands. Two sources qf" the hypothesis are reviewed: sociological functionalism and recent economic analyses of marital status. The empirical merit of the hypothesis is examined with NORC General Social Survey data. No support is found for the hypothesis. Reasons for the persistence of this theoretical assumption, in the absence of empirical support, are discussed.

Leadership decision‐making: an empirical test of the vroom and yetton model

Abstract: Despite the common belief that greater worker participation in decision-making in industry will increase productivity and worker job satisfaction, the empirical evidence has been most contradictory. As a result, theories have been developed which now suggest that the degree of participation should depend on the particular problem or situation facing the leader. For the practising manager the problem has been the identification of the situation and the subsequent selection of an appropriate decision method. One answer to this problem is the Vroom and Yetton model which gives explicit directions to the leader as to how to categorize the problem and select the appropriate decision method. This paper describes our research to examine the external validity of this model. The sites chosen for the research were forty-seven owner-operated, small, non-unionized, franchised firms, where the leaders had the power and authority to effect organizational outcomes. On these various sites, there was relatively high similarity with regard to the technology employed, tasks performed, number of levels of hierarchy and the external environments. It was found that those leaders who were in high agreement with the Vroom and Yetton model had workers with higher productivity and higher satisfaction with supervision than those leaders who were in low agreement with the model. These findings give strong support for the Vroom and Yetton model. The implication of these findings on the training and selection of managers, and on further research, are discussed.

On the Use of the Accounting Rate of Return in Empirical Research

Abstract: (1979). On the Use of the Accounting Rate of Return in Empirical Research. Accounting and Business Research: Vol. 9, No. 35, pp. 201-208.

The Real Experience of Death among Adolescents: An Empirical Study

Abstract: A survey of high school students indicates that adolescents have more experience with death and mourning than has been assumed. School guidance and mental health personnel need to encourage students to discuss and understand their proximity to death, the effects it has on one's feelings, and how best to deal with loss.