Showing papers on "Factor price published in 2005"

Sources of TFP Growth: Occupational Choice and Financial Deepening

Abstract: We develop a method of growth accounting based on the integrated use of transitional growth models and micro data. We decompose total factor productivity (TFP) growth into the occupational-shift effect, financial-deepening effect, capital-heterogeneity effect, and sectoral-Solow-residuals. Applying this method to Thailand, which experienced rapid growth with enormous structural changes between 1976 and 1996, we find that 73 percent of TFP growth is explained by occupational shifts and ?nancial deepening, without presuming exogenous technical progress. Expansion of credit is a major part. We also show the role of endogenous interaction between factor price dynamics and the wealth distribution for TFP.

Order book approach to price impact

Abstract: Buying and selling stocks causes price changes, which are described by the price impact function. To explain the shape of this function, we study the Island ECN orderbook. In addition to transaction data, the orderbook contains information about potential supply and demand for a stock. The virtual price impact calculated from this information is four times stronger than the actual one and explains it only partially. However, we find a strong anticorrelation between price changes and order flow, which strongly reduces the virtual price impact and provides for an explanation of the empirical price impact function.

Microfoundations of Macroeconomic Price Adjustment: Survey Evidence from Swedish Firms

Abstract: This paper presents the results of a survey on price-setting behavior conducted on a large random sample of Swedish firms. The median firm adjusts the price once a year. State- and time-dependent price setting are about equally important. The four highest-ranked explanations for price rigidity in this study (implicit contracts, sluggish costs, explicit contracts, and the kinked demand curve) have close correspondents among the top five places in two similar large-scale surveys carried out in the UK and the U.S. The results point to the importance of the long-term relations with customers for the rigidity of prices (the estimated share of sales that go to regular customers is more than 80%).

Optimal Monetary Policy with Relative Price Distortions

Abstract: This paper analyzes optimal monetary policy in a sticky price model with Calvo-type staggered price-setting. In the paper, the optimal monetary policy maximizes the expected utility of a representative household without having to rely on a set of linearly approximated equilibrium conditions, given the distortions associated with the staggered price-setting. It shows that the complete stabilization of the price level is optimal in the absence of initial price dispersion, while optimal inflation targets respond to changes in the level of relative price distortion in the presence of initial price dispersion.

Price Asymmetry in Energy Demand Models: A Proxy for Energy-Saving Technical Change?

Abstract: It has become fashionable to believe that energy and oil demand respond asymmetrically to price increases and decreases. Unfortunately, the asymmetric price model utilized by Gately and others has the unintended by-product of producing intercept shifts in the demand function purely in response to price volatility. Thus what is in fact energy saving technical change is attributed to price asymmetry. The two become observationally equivalent. Furthermore, the asymmetric price model has the peculiarity of being dependent on the starting point of the data period so that parameter estimates are not robust across different sample periods. We demonstrate empirically using a panel of OECD countries for oil and energy demand that symmetric price responses cannot be rejected after explicitly controlling for energy saving technical change within a fixed effects model.

The Price Setting Behaviour of Spanish Firms: Evidence from Survey Data

Abstract: This paper reports the results of a survey carried out by the Banco de Espana on a sample of around 2000 Spanish firms to deepen the understanding of firms' price setting behaviour. The main findings may be summarised as follows. Most Spanish firms are price setters that use predominantly state-dependent rules or a combination of time- and statedependent rules when reviewing their prices. Changes in costs are the main factor underlying price increases, whereas changes in market conditions (demand and competitors' prices) are the main driving forces of price decreases. The degree of price flexibility is directly related to the share of energy inputs over total costs and to the intensity of competition, whereas it is inversely linked to the labour share. The three theories of price stickiness that receive the highest empirical support are implicit contracts, coordination failure and explicit contracts.

Consumer Price Behaviour in Italy: Evidence from Micro CPI Data

Abstract: This paper investigates the behaviour of consumer prices in Italy by looking at micro data in the attempt to obtain a quantitative measure of the unconditional degree of price rigidity in the Italian economy. The analysis focuses on the monthly frequency of price changes and on the duration of price spells, also with reference to different types of products and outlets. Prices tend to remain unchanged on average for around 10 months; duration is longer for nonenergy industrial goods and services and much shorter for energy products. Price changes are more frequent upward than downward, in larger stores than in traditional ones. When the geographical location of outlets is accounted for, price changes display considerable synchronisation, in particular in the service sector.

Time-Dependent or State-Dependent Price Setting? Micro-Evidence from German Metal-Working Industries

Abstract: Price setting in German metal-working industries is analysed using a monthly panel of individual price data for more than 2,000 plants covering the period from 1980 to 2001. Motivated by several models in the literature, a duration model is estimated. Price changes can be explained by a combination of state-dependence and time-dependence. Time-dependence clearly dominates and is strongest if a price increase follows a price increase. This occurs most likely after 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, ... quarters. This time-dependent effect is so strong and cost and price increases are so weak in the observed period that adjustment occurs before the sticky price sufficiently deviates from the flexible price, as traditional menu cost models assume. State-dependence seems to be most relevant in periods with decreasing demand. Then firms reduce prices and the time between two price cuts only rarely exceeds four months.

Pricing, Production, and Persistence

Abstract: Though built with increasingly precise microfoundations, modern optimizing sticky price models have displayed a chronic inability to generate large and persistent real responses to monetary shocks, as recently stressed by Chari, Kehoe, and McGrattan [2000]. This is an ironic finding, since Taylor [1980] and other researchers were motivated to study sticky price models in part by the objective of generating large and persistent business fluctuations. We trace this lack of persistence to a standard view of the cyclical behavior of real marginal cost built into current sticky price macro models. Using a fully articulated general equilibrium model, we show how an alternative view of real marginal cost can lead to substantial persistence. This alternative view is based on three features of the “supply side” of the economy that we believe are realistic: an important role for produced inputs, variable capacity utilization, and labor supply variability through changes in employment. Importantly, these “real flexibilities” work together to dramatically reduce the elasticity of marginal cost with respect to output, from levels much larger than unity in CKM to values much smaller than unity in our analysis. These “real flexibilities” consequently reduce the extent of price adjustments by firms in time-dependent pricing economies and the incentives for paying fixed costs of adjustment in state-dependent pricing economies. The structural features also lead the sticky price model to display volatility and comovement of factor inputs and factor prices that are more closely in line with conventional wisdom about business cycles and various empirical studies of the dynamic effects of monetary shocks. ∗ Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia; ** Boston University, NBER and FRB Richmond. This paper builds on earlier joint work with Alexander L. Wolman on this topic We wish to thank Brian Boike for providing excellent research assistance and also to thank the referees and the editor for making numerous useful suggestions. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, or the Federal Reserve System.

Estimating the price elasticity of expenditure for prescription drugs in the presence of non-linear price schedules: an illustration from Quebec, Canada.

Abstract: The price elasticity of demand for prescription drugs is a crucial parameter of interest in designing pharmaceutical benefit plans. Estimating the elasticity using micro-data, however, is challenging because insurance coverage that includes deductibles, co-insurance provisions and maximum expenditure limits create a non-linear price schedule, making price endogenous (a function of drug consumption). In this paper we exploit an exogenous change in cost-sharing within the Quebec (Canada) public Pharmacare program to estimate the price elasticity of expenditure for drugs using IV methods. This approach corrects for the endogeneity of price and incorporates the concept of a 'rational' consumer who factors into consumption decisions the price they expect to face at the margin given their expected needs. The IV method is adapted from an approach developed in the public finance literature used to estimate income responses to changes in tax schedules. The instrument is based on the price an individual would face under the new cost-sharing policy if their consumption remained at the pre-policy level. Our preferred specification leads to expenditure elasticities that are in the low range of previous estimates (between -0.12 and -0.16). Naive OLS estimates are between 1 and 4 times these magnitudes.

Price Setting in German Manufacturing: New Evidence from New Survey Data

Abstract: This paper presents new evidence on the formation of producer prices based on a onetime survey that was conducted on a sample of 1200 German firms in manufacturing in June 2004. Most of the firms have price-setting power and apply mark-up pricing. Indexation is negligible. Fixed nominal contracts are the most important reason for postponing a price adjustment. The second most likely reason is coordination failure, which causes more upward than downward stickiness. For every second firm both reasons are important. Firms can be assigned to four different groups according to an increasing complexity of reasons of price stickiness.

The Price Setting Behaviour of Portuguese Firms Evidence from Survey Data

Abstract: This paper analyses the results of a survey conducted by the Banco de Portugal between May and September 2004 on a sample of 1370 Portuguese firms with the main purpose of investigating their price setting behaviour. The evidence points to the presence of a considerable degree of price stickiness: most firms do not review or change their prices more than once a year; time lags in price reactions to cost and demand shocks were found to be significant; and slightly more than half of the firms follow time-dependent price reviewing, though only one-third stick to this practice after the occurrence of specific shocks. The degree of price stickiness seems to be higher in services than in manufacturing. The presence of implicit contracts between firms and their customers under which the former pledge to stabilise their prices as a way to increase customers’ loyalty is apparently the main reason that prevents firms from changing their prices more promptly. Other relevant sources of price stickiness were also found: coordination problems arising from the preference of firms not to change their prices unless their competitors do so, the constraint imposed by a high proportion of fixed costs, marginal costs that vary little when costs are an important determinant in firms’ pricing decisions or the presence of formal contracts that are costly to renegotiate. In contrast, alternative explanations such as the existence of menu costs, the preference of firms to quote their prices according to certain thresholds and the costs of collecting the relevant information for pricing decisions were not considered very important.

Total Factor Productivity Revisited: A Dual Approach to Development Accounting

Abstract: This paper tackles a number of issues that are central to cross-country comparisons of productivity. We develop a "dual" method to compare levels of total factor productivity (TFP) across nations that relies on factor price data rather than the data on stocks offactors required by standard "primal" estimates. Consistent with the development accounting literature based on primal estimates, we find that TFP accounts for much of the differences in income per worker across countries. However, we also find that there are significant differences between TFP series calculated using the two approaches. We trace the reason for this divergence to inconsistencies between the data on user costs of capital and physical stocks of capital. In addition, we establish that the standard Cobb-Douglas methodology of assuming a constant capital share of one-third for all countries is a very good approximation to a more general formulation under which countries have different aggregate production functions that do not require a constant elasticity of substitution among factors.

Marketing margins and price transmission on the Hungarian pork meat market

Abstract: The analysis of vertical price relationship along the supply chain from producers to consumers has become a popular tool of evaluating the efficiency and degree of competition in agrifood systems over recent decades. There is a wealth of literature on the farm-retail price spread for different commodities and countries. However, with one exception (Bojnec, 2002) none have studied price transmission and marketing margins in the transition economies. It is a common belief that because of the distorted markets inherited from the pre 1989 period, the deficiency of the price-discovery mechanisms, and unpredictable policy interventions, marketing margins are generally larger in the transition economies than in competitive markets. Using cointegration analysis, we find that producer and retail pork meat prices are cointegrated, the retail prices entering the cointegration space as weakly exogenous variables. Structural tests imposing homogeneity conditions are carried out and show a competitive pricing strategy. Price transmission modeling suggests that, despite the common belief, price transmission on the Hungarian pork meat market is symmetric. [JEL classification: Q13, D12, D4.] © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Agribusiness 21: 273–286, 2005.

Asymmetric Price Adjustment in the Small: An Implication of Rational Inattention

Abstract: Analyzing scanner price data that cover 27 product categories over an eight-year period from a large Mid-western supermarket chain, we uncover a surprising regularity in the data—small price increases occur more frequently than small price decreases. We find that this asymmetry holds for price changes of up to about 10 cents, on average. The asymmetry disappears for larger price changes. We document this finding for the entire data set, as well as for individual product categories. Further, we find that the asymmetry holds even after excluding from the data the observations pertaining to inflationary periods, and after allowing for various lengths of lagged price adjustment. The findings are insensitive also to the measure of price level used to measure inflation (the PPI or the CPI). To explain these findings, we extend the implications of the literature on rational inattention to individual price dynamics. Specifically, we argue that processing and reacting to price change information is a costly activity. An important implication of rational inattention is that consumers may rationally choose to ignore—and thus not to respond to—small price changes, creating a “range of inattention” along the demand curve. This range of consumer inattention, we argue, gives the retailers incentive for asymmetric price adjustment “in the small.” These incentives, however, disappear for large price changes, because large price changes are processed by consumers and therefore trigger their response. Thus, no asymmetry is observed “in the large.” An additional implication of rational inattention is that the extent of the asymmetry found “in the small” might vary over the business cycle: it might diminish during recessions and strengthen during expansions. We find that the data are indeed consistent with these predictions. An added contribution of the paper is that our theory may offer a possible explanation for the presence of small price changes, which has been a long-standing puzzle in the literature.

An Empirical Analysis of Price Discrimination Mechanisms and Retailer Profitability

Abstract: Retailers typically engage in some form of price discrimination to increase profitability. In this article, the authors compare the impact on retailer profitability of two price discrimination mechanisms: quantity discounts based on package size (second-degree price discrimination) and store-level pricing or micromarketing (third-degree price discrimination). Whereas the latter has been well addressed in the marketing literature, there is limited empirical research on the use of quantity discounts for price discrimination. Using store-level sales data, the authors estimate a structural demand model, accounting for parameter heterogeneity and price endogeneity. They combine the parameter estimates with a model of retailer pricing to conduct optimal pricing and profitability simulations under several scenarios, ranging from constraining the retailer not to engage in any form of price discrimination to the least restrictive scenario of setting nonlinear price schedules specific to each store. The pr...

The Dynamics of Price Elasticity of Demand in the Presence of Reference Price Effects

Abstract: The authors derive an expression for the price elasticity of demand in the presence of reference price effects that includes a component resulting from the presence of gains and losses in consumer evaluations. The effect of reference price is most noticeable immediately after a price change, before consumers have had time to adjust their reference price. As a result, immediate-term price elasticity is higher than long-term elasticity, which describes the response of demand long after a price change, when reference price effects are negligible. Furthermore, because of the differential effect of gains and losses, immediate-term price elasticity for price increases and price decreases is not equal. The authors provide a quantitative definition for the terms immediate term and long term, using the average interpurchase time and the discrete “memory” parameter. Practical consequences of the distinction between immediate- and long-term elasticities for the estimation and use of elasticity values are discussed.

Prices and Unit Values in Poverty Measurement and Tax Reform Analysis

Abstract: Researchers often use unit values (household expenditures on a commodity divided by the quantity purchased) as proxies for market prices when calculating poverty lines and estimating consumer demand equations. Such proxies are often needed because community price surveys in developing economies are either absent or suffer quality problems. However, using unit values may result in biases due to measurement error and quality effects. In a household survey experiment, information on prices was obtained in three ways: from unit values, from a market price survey, and from the opinions of householders who were shown pictures of items and asked to report the local price. The three sets of price data are used to calculate poverty lines, estimate price elasticities, and analyze marginal tax reforms. There are substantial biases when unit values are used as a proxy for market price, even when sophisticated correction methods are applied. Performance was better for the price opinions of household members. The results highlight the importance of price collection methods and the need to consider the wider costs of having potentially unreliable community-level price data.

Which Accounts for Real Exchange Rate Fluctuations, Deviations from the Law of One Price or Relative Price of Nontraded Goods?

Abstract: The literature on real exchange rate fluctuations is precisely divided by the views regarding their source. One emphasizes the relative price of nontraded goods to traded goods by assuming nominal rigidities in the nontraded sector or in the factor prices. The other stresses the importance of the traded component or the deviations from the law of one price. In this paper, we use Betts and Kehoe (2001)’s real exchange rate decomposition to explore which component accounts for the bilateral real exchange rate fluctuations among six East Asian countries and the United States. We find that a significant fraction of the variance of real exchange rates is accounted for by the deviations from the law of one price for traded goods, while the relative price of nontraded to traded goods also plays an important role as nominal exchange rate becomes stable.

Vertical integration and non‐linear price adjustments: The Spanish poultry sector

Abstract: The analysis of asymmetries in the price-transmission mechanism at different levels of the marketing chain provides a good indicator of market efficiency in vertically related markets. The objective of this paper is to investigate the non-linear adjustments of prices in the poultry marketing chain in Spain. The methodology used is based on the multivariate approach to specify and estimate a threshold autoregressive model. Price relationships at feed industry, producer, and retail levels are considered. Results indicate that, in the long run, price transmission is perfect and any supply or demand shocks are fully transmitted to all prices in the system. In the short run, price adjustments between the feed and the farmer levels are fairly symmetric and are representative of a cost-push transmission mechanism. On the other hand, retailers benefit from any shock, whether positive or negative, that affects supply or demand conditions when price spreads are increasing, while price behavior is closely related to competitive markets when faced with declining price spreads. [EconLit citations: C320, Q130.] © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Agribusiness 21: 253–271, 2005.

Price Rigidity in the German Grocery-Retailing Sector: Scanner-Data Evidence on Magnitude and Causes

Abstract: The theoretical and empirical macroeconomic literature suggests that price rigidity in industrialized countries is substantial and its causes are manifold. This article provides empirical evidence on the importance of price rigidity in the grocery-retailing sector and on the role of some major determinants of food price rigidity. The analysis is based on a comprehensive weekly dataset of 20 branded foods in German food stores. The statistical analysis shows that food price rigidity is strong in spite of the widespread use of retail sales. Moreover, the importance of psychological pricing in grocery retailing is overwhelming. Econometric results indicate that food prices get more sticky as the number of price actions declines and as psychological pricing becomes more concentrated on a few important price barriers. Firms pricing strategies are crucial for food price rigidity, too.