Showing papers on "Fertility published in 2005"

Fertility, family planning, and reproductive health of U.S. Women: Data from the 2002 national survey of family growth

Abstract: OBJECTIVE This report presents national estimates of fertility, family planning, and reproductive health indicators among females 15-44 years of age in the United States in 2002 from Cycle 6 of the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG). For selected indicators, data are also compared with earlier cycles of the NSFG. METHODS Descriptive tables of numbers and percentages are presented and interpreted. Data were collected through in-person interviews of the household population 15-44 years of age in the United States between March 2002 and March 2003. The sample included 7,643 females and 4,928 males, and this report focuses on data from the female sample. The overall response rate for the Cycle 6 NSFG was 79 percent, and the response rate for women was 80 percent. RESULTS Given the range of topics covered in the report, only selected findings are listed here. About 14 percent of recent births to women 15-44 years of age in 2002 were unwanted at time of conception, an increase from the 9 percent seen for recent births in 1995. Among recent births, 64 percent occurred within marriage, 14 percent within cohabiting unions, and 21 percent to women who were neither married nor cohabiting. The overall rate of breastfeeding initiation among recent births increased from 55 to 67 percent between 1995 and 2002. About 50 percent of women 15-44 had ever cohabited compared with 41 percent of women in the 1995 survey; the percentage of women currently cohabiting also increased, from 7 to 9 percent between 1995 and 2002.

Fertility preservation for young patients with cancer: who is at risk and what can be offered?

Abstract: Estimates suggest that by 2010, one in 715 people in the UK will have survived cancer during childhood. With increasing numbers of children cured, attention has focused on their quality of life. We discuss the causes of impaired fertility after cancer treatment in young people, and outline which patients are at risk and how their gonadal function should be assessed. With the report of a livebirth after orthotopic transplantation of cryopreserved ovarian tissue and the continued development of intracytoplasmic sperm injection for men with poor sperm quality, we assess established and experimental strategies to protect or restore fertility, and discuss the ethical and legal issues that arise.

Births: final data for 2003.

Abstract: Objectives—This report presents 2003 data on U.S. births according to a wide variety of characteristics. Data are presented for maternal demographic characteristics including age, live-birth order, race, Hispanic origin, marital status, and educational attainment; maternal characteristics (medical risk factors, weight gain, and tobacco and alcohol use); medical care utilization by pregnant women (prenatal care, obstetric procedures, complications of labor and/or delivery, attendant at birth, and method of delivery); and infant characteristics (period of gestation, birthweight, Apgar score, abnormal conditions, congenital anomalies, and multiple births). Also presented are birth and fertility rates by age, live-birth order, race, Hispanic origin, and marital status. Selected data by mother’s State of residence are shown, as well as data on month and day of birth, sex ratio, and age of father. Trends in fertility patterns and maternal and infant characteristics are described and interpreted. Methods—Descriptive tabulations of data reported on the birth certificates of the 4.09 million births that occurred in 2003 are pre­ sented. Denominators for population-based rates are derived from the U.S. 2000 census. Results—In 2003 there were 4,089,950 live births reported in the United States, 2 percent more than the number in 2002. The crude birth rate (CBR) and general fertility rate (GFR) rose slightly. Childbearing among teenagers declined for the 12th straight year to another historic Figure 1. Birth rates by age of mother: United States, low. Birth rates for women aged 20–24 years also declined, whereas 1990–2003 rates for women aged 25–44 years increased 2–6 percent, reaching highs not reported since the mid- to late 1960s. All measures of unmarried childbearing increased considerably in 2003, but smoking during pregnancy continued to decline. Timely initiation of prenatal care Highlights improved slightly. The cesarean delivery rate jumped another 5 percent to another all-time high, and the rate of vaginal birth after previous + In 2003, 4,089,950 births were registered in the United States, cesarean dropped 16 percent, an all-time low. Key measures of birth 2 percent more than in 2002. Births increased among nonoutcome—the percentages of preterm and low birthweight (LBW) Hispanic white, Hispanic, American Indian, and Asian or Pacific births—rose. The twinning rate increased, but the rate of triplet and Islander (API) women but decreased among non-Hispanic black higher order multiple births was essentially stable. women.

Fertility and ageing.

Abstract: The late 20th century trend to delay birth of the first child until the age at which female fecundity or reproductive capacity is lower has increased the incidence of age-related infertility. The trend and its consequences have also stimulated interest in the possible factors in the female and the male that may contribute to the decline in fecundity with age; in the means that exist to predict fecundity; and in the consequences for pregnancy and childbirth. In the female, the number of oocytes decreases with age until the menopause. Oocyte quality also diminishes, due in part to increased aneuploidy because of factors such as changes in spindle integrity. Although older male age affects the likelihood of conception, abnormalities in sperm chromosomes and in some components of the semen analysis are less important than the frequency of intercourse. Age is as accurate as any other predictor of conception with assisted reproductive technology. The decline in fecundity becomes clinically relevant when women reach their mid-30s, when even assisted reproduction treatment cannot compensate for the decline in fecundity associated with delaying attempts at conceiving. Pregnancies among women aged >40 years are associated with more non-severe complications, more premature births, more congenital malformations and more interventions at birth.

Definition and prevalence of subfertility and infertility.

Abstract: A common definition of sub- and infertility is very important for the appropriate management of infertility. Subfertility generally describes any form of reduced fertility with prolonged time of unwanted non-conception. Infertility may be used synonymously with sterility with only sporadically occurring spontaneous pregnancies. The major factor affecting the individual spontaneous pregnancy prospect is the time of unwanted non-conception which determines the grading of subfertility. Most of the pregnancies occur in the first six cycles with intercourse in the fertile phase (80%). After that, serious subfertility must be assumed in every second couple (10%) although--after 12 unsuccessful cycles--untreated live birth rates among them will reach nearly 55% in the next 36 months. Thereafter (48 months), approximately 5% of the couples are definitive infertile with a nearly zero chance of becoming spontaneously pregnant in the future. With age, cumulative probabilities of conception decline because heterogeneity in fecundity increases due to a higher proportion of infertile couples. In truly fertile couples cumulative probabilities of conception are probably age independent. Under appropriate circumstances a basic infertility work-up after six unsuccessful cycles with fertility-focused intercourse will identify couples with significant infertility problems to avoid both infertility under- and over-treatment, regardless of age: Couples with a reasonably good prognosis (e.g. unexplained infertility) may be encouraged to wait because even with treatment they do not have a better chance of conceiving. The others may benefit from an early resort to assisted reproduction treatment.

Partner + Children = Happiness? The Effects of Partnerships and Fertility on Well-Being

Abstract: In this study we overcome several limitations of earlier studies on partnership formation childbearing and happiness. We estimate the contributions of partnerships and fertility to subjective well-being—or “happiness”— using a unique data set from Denmark that includes monozygotic (MZ i.e. identical) twins. These twins have been asked in a recent survey about their socioeconomic and demographic background as well as their subjective wellbeing. The specific features of our data allow us to control for unobserved endowments (e.g. preferences and capabilities due to genetic dispositions family background neighborhood in which the twins grew up) that affect marriage/fertility behavior and happiness; and conditional on our model these estimates reveal the causal contributions of marriage and fertility to individuals’ subjective well-being. Our estimates permit us to explore a basic tenet of economic or rational-choice fertility models that may be important in understanding continued partnership formation and childbearing in low-fertility contexts. At the same time they permit an assessment of the set-point theory of happiness that has increasing currency in the psychological literature at least as it pertains empirically to partnership formation and childbearing. (excerpt)

A longitudinal, prospective study on emotional adjustment before, during and after consecutive fertility treatment cycles

Abstract: BACKGROUND: A longitudinal study into the course of the emotional response to IVF from pre-treatment to 6 months post-treatment and factors that contributed to that course. METHODS: A total of 148 IVF patients and 71 partners completed self-report questionnaires on anxiety, depression, personality characteristics, meaning of fertility problems, coping, marital relationship and social support at pre-treatment. Assessments of anxiety and depression were repeated immediately following the final treatment cycle and again 6 months later (follow-up). RESULTS: Women showed an increase of both anxiety and depression after unsuccessful treatment and a decrease after successful treatment. Men showed no change in anxiety and depression either after successful or after unsuccessful treatment. In the 6 months after unsuccessful treatment, women showed no recovery. At follow-up, >20% of the women showed subclinical forms of anxiety and/or depression. Personality characteristics, meaning of the fertility problems, and social support determined the course of the emotional response. CONCLUSIONS: Most women adjusted well to unsuccessful treatment, but at follow-up, a considerable proportion still showed substantial emotional problems. Personality characteristics, pre-treatment meaning of the fertility problems and social support have demonstrated the adjustment to unsuccessful IVF in women. This allows early identification of women at risk as well as tailored interventions.

Cheap children and the persistence of poverty

Abstract: This paper develops a theory of fertility that offers an explanation for the persistence of poverty within and across countries. If educated individuals have a comparative advantage in raising educated children then parental fertility choice is shown to give rise to a poverty trap, in which the poor choose high fertility rates with low investment in child quality. Moreover, the impact of child quality choice on economic performance is amplified by the diluting effect of higher fertility on physical capital accumulation. The theory proposes insights regarding the effects of inequality, globalisation and life expectancy on economic growth and demographic transitions. This paper develops a theory of fertility and child educational choice that offers an explanation for the persistence of poverty within and across countries. The joint determination of the quality (education) and quantity of children in a household is studied under the key assumption that individuals’ productivity as teachers increases with their own human capital. In contrast, the minimum time cost associated with raising a child regardless of the child’s quality ‐ the quantity cost ‐ is not affected by parental education. As a result, the price of child quantity relative to the price of child quality increases with individuals’ wages. In particular, for low-wage individuals, for whom the opportunity cost of time is low, children of minimal quality are ‘cheap’. This assumption, therefore, generates a comparative advantage for the poor in child quantity, whereas high-wage (educated) individuals have a comparative advantage in raising quality children. Consistent with the well-known evidence, poor households thus choose relatively high fertility rates with relatively low investment in their offspring’s education; and therefore, their offspring are poor as well. In contrast, high-income families choose low fertility rates with high investment in education, and therefore, high income persists in the dynasty. Evidence from the US, provided by Hanushek (1992), suggests that a trade-off between quantity and quality of children does indeed exist. Hanushek argues that movements in family size could explain over half the variance in some test scores, and that the elasticity of achievements with respect to the number of children in the family is )0.03, implying that the annual achievement growth of each child in a family will fall about 2% when a second child is added and about 0.5% when a sixth child is added. 1

The Causes of Stalling Fertility Transitions

Abstract: An examination of fertility trends in countries with multiple DHS surveys found that in the 1990s fertility stalled in midtransition in seven countries: Bangladesh, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ghana, Kenya, Peru, and Turkey. In each of these countries fertility was high (more than six births per woman) in the 1950s and declined to fewer than five births per woman in the early or mid-1990s, before stalling. The level of stalling varied from 4.7 births per woman in Kenya to 2.5 births per woman in Turkey. An analysis of trends in the determinants of fertility revealed a systematic pattern of leveling off or near leveling in a number of determinants, including contraceptive use, the demand for contraception, and number of wanted births. The stalling countries did not experience significant increases in unwanted births or in the unmet need for contraception during the late 1990s, and program effort scores improved slightly, except in the Dominican Republic. These findings suggest no major deterioration in contraceptive access during the stall, but levels of unmet need and unwanted births are relatively high, and improvements in access to family planning methods would, therefore, be desirable. No significant link was found between the presence of a stall and trends in socioeconomic development, but at the onset of the stall the level of fertility was low relative to the level of development in all but one of the stalling countries.

Male Fertility in Natural Populations of Red Deer Is Determined by Sperm Velocity and the Proportion of Normal Spermatozoa

Abstract: Male reproductive success is determined by the ability of males to gain sexual access to females and by their ability to fertilize ova. Among polygynous mammals, males differ markedly in their reproductive success, and a great deal of effort has been made to understand how selective forces have shaped traits that enhance male competitiveness both before and after copulation (i.e., sperm competition). However, the possibility that males also may differ in their fertility has been ignored under the assumption that male infertility is rare in natural populations because selection against it is likely to be strong. In the present study, we examined which semen traits correlate with male fertility in natural populations of Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus). We found no trade-offs between semen traits. Our analyses revealed strong associations between sperm production and sperm swimming velocity, sperm motility and proportion of morphologically normal spermatozoa, and sperm viability and acrosome integrity. These last two variables had the lowest coefficients of variation, suggesting that these traits have stabilized at high values and are unlikely to be related to fitness. In a fertility trial, our results show a large degree of variation in male fertility, and differences in fertility were determined mainly by sperm swimming velocity and by the proportion of morphologically normal sperm. We conclude that male fertility varies substantially in natural populations of Iberian red deer and that, when sperm numbers are equal, it is determined mainly by sperm swimming velocity and sperm morphology. acrosome reaction, gamete biology, male reproductive tract, sperm, sperm motility and transport

Fertility- and Menopause-Related Information Needs of Younger Women With a Diagnosis of Early Breast Cancer

Abstract: Purpose The use of chemotherapy and endocrine therapies in the treatment of premenopausal women carries with it reproductive and gynecologic implications that young women may find distressing and discordant with plans for childbearing. This multicenter study aimed to investigate fertility- and menopause-related information needs among young women with a diagnosis of early-stage breast cancer. Patients and Methods Two hundred twenty-eight women with a diagnosis of early-stage breast cancer who were aged 40 years or younger at diagnosis and who were 6 to 60 months after diagnosis were entered onto the trial. Participants completed a mailed self-report questionnaire that included a purposely designed fertility- and menopause-related information needs survey and standardized measures of distress, anxiety, quality of life, menopausal symptoms, and information-seeking style. Results Seventy-one percent of participants discussed fertility-related issues with a health professional as part of their breast cancer t...

Vanishing Children: From High Unemployment to Low Fertility in Developed Countries.

Abstract: During the last four decades the average total fertility rate in OECD countries witnessed a dramatic fall: from 2.9 in 1960 to 2.0 in 1975 and then to 1.6 in the late 1990s (reaching 1.25 in Southern Europe). With the exception of the United States, all advanced countries now have fertility rates well below the replacement rate of 2.1. In the absence of either sharp changes in fertility behavior or large inflows of immigrants, their populations are set to shrink, particularly in Europe. Still, within this generalized fall, cross-national differences in fertility behavior have remained significant. By 2000, fertility rates ranged from 2.1 in the United States and over 1.8 in France and Norway to less than 1.3 in Greece, Italy, and Spain. Most standard accounts attribute the fall in fertility rates to a shift in personal preferences over the size of the family due to either changes in religious beliefs or growing female participation in the labor market. Yet, even though the ideal number of children for men and women 20–34 years old has declined, it is fairly similar across the European Union at around the replacement level of 2.1 (Eurostat, 2001). Hence, the sources of cross-national variation in fertility behavior must lie somewhere else. As women have joined the labor force, fertility rates have adjusted as a function of the institutional structures that shape the job market and determine its long-run unemployment rate. Exploiting the considerable variation of fertility rates and employment conditions across industrial countries, this paper shows that the current demographic transition is ultimately associated with the constraints of the labor market where fertility decisions are taken.

The Economics of Child Labour

Abstract: Introduction 1. Prolegomena 2. Child Labour, Education and Saving 3. Fertility, Infant Mortality, and Gender 4. International Trade 5. Child Labour, Education, Nutrition and Fertility in Rural India 6. Child Labour Effects of Access to Basic Utilities: Evidence from Five Countries 7. Health Effects of Child Labour: Evidence from Guatemala and Rural Vietnam 8. Credit Markets and Child Labour: The Effects of Shocks, Credit Rationing, and Insurance 9. Further Evidence on Fertility, Education, and Child Labour Conclusion

Child mortality and fertility decline: Does the Barro-Becker model fit the facts?

Abstract: I compare the predictions of three variants of the altruistic parent model of Barro and Becker for the relationship between child mortality and fertility. In the baseline model fertility choice is continuous, and there is no uncertainty over the number of surviving children. The baseline model is contrasted to an extension with discrete fertility choice and stochastic mortality and a setup with sequential fertility choice. The quantitative predictions of the models are remarkably similar. While in each model the total fertility rate falls as child mortality declines, the number of surviving children increases. The results suggest that factors other than declining infant and child mortality are responsible for the large decline in net reproduction rates observed in industrialized countries over the last century.

Intended and Ideal Family Size in the United States, 1970–2002

Abstract: How do contemporary fertility ideals, desires, and intentions relate to contemporary low fertility? At the empirical level the answer is straightforward: observed fertility is well below the levels of ideal family size and also usually well below respondents' desires and intentions. In fact, below-replacement fertility in many countries would disappear if respondents' fertility intentions were realized (Bongaarts 2001, 2002; Goldstein, Lutz, and Testa 2003). At the conceptual level, all behavioral models of contemporary low fertility feature choice: individuals choose to have children (Thomson and Brandreth 1995). Thus fertility intentions, if not ideals, hold the promise that actual fertility could mirror intentions over the long run, thus bringing observed fertility closer to replacement. Consistent with this view, Bongaarts (2002) argues that a substantial part of the discrepancy between aggregate fertility intentions and contemporary fertility levels can be accounted for by timing shifts, specifically the postponement of childbearing to later ages. Once this postponement abates, as it eventually must,1 intentions and current behavior will be more similar. In addition, frustrated demand for children could encourage institutional adjustments that would allow childbearing to correspond to levels desired by women and couples, again raising fertility to levels that approximate intentions. Expressing an alternative view, Goldstein, Lutz, and Testa (2003) report that German-speaking areas of Europe now show levels of ideal and expected family size well below replacement levels (i.e., less than two children per woman), a pattern they suggest portends a permanent shift to sub-replacement fertility. They argue that the previous disjuncture between intentions and behavior in German-speaking counties, now evident in many other countries as well, represents “cultural lag.” Specifically, women and couples act in accordance with contemporary antinatalist constraints and have few children, but continue for a period (a time lag) to express the prevailing cultural imperatives to be parents and to have at least two children. Younger cohorts, once they have lived much of their lives in a low-fertility setting, adopt the status quo as an expectation and thus express intentions (and ideals) that more closely correspond to contemporary behavior. Goldstein et al. (2003) hypothesize that fertility intentions and ideals in Italy, Spain, and elsewhere will soon decline further, creating greater symmetry between subreplacement fertility and subreplacement ideals and expectations. The suggestion that aggregate shifts in intentions can follow rather than precede behavioral shifts is not new (see Lee 1980; Westoff and Ryder 1977; Morgan 1981, 1982). Finally, Demeny (2003) argues that a wide gap between expressed preferences and behavior can persist indefinitely. Even if such preferences for a particular number of children are genuine, these preferences compete with others, and the result need not be reconciled by having children. Demeny characterizes the deficit of actual-to-preferred number of births as those that occur only “in the minds of their would-be parents.” Current social and economic conditions, he argues, encourage a persistent shortfall of the actual number of births compared to what women say they would wish to have. Hence, this shortfall provides little evidence against long-term subreplacement fertility even when expressed fertility preferences are at replacement level. Thus while we juxtapose these positions as starkly as possible and acknowledge that they need not be mutually exclusive, reasonable arguments can be made that: i) fertility will rise soon to more closely approximate intentions, ii) intentions will fall soon to approximate subreplacement levels of fertility, or iii) a shortfall of births relative to fertility preferences will persist. Given such a range of expectations, do we conclude, as Demeny's argument suggests, that data on preferences are irrelevant to debates about “how low will fertility go”? We argue no. First, we note the inconsistency in taking seriously the disjuncture between intended and realized fertility when the observed outcomes are greater than the former (e.g., unwanted fertility) but not the reverse (when fertility falls short of intentions or expectations). In both cases, the intention–behavior disjuncture puts the interest of the individual and the collective in agreement, that is, realizing individuals' stated intention or preference increases the likelihood of a desired aggregate outcome (i.e., replacement-level fertility). Such an aligning of individual and collective goals is opportune for policy interventions. Second, a large theoretical and empirical literature focuses on the predictive validity of reproductive intentions. Morgan's (2001) review of this literature concludes that intended parity is not a consistently accurate predictor of completed fertility for individuals or of aggregate fertility for cohorts. However, a model proposed by Bongaarts (2002) that we use below provides a framework for explaining intention–behavior inconsistency. Further, examining cross-national variation in the extent to which intentions match behavior allows us to assess societal features that promote correspondence between intention and behavior. Figure 1 provides data that are consistent with key claims above and that situate and motivate our research. Data from European countries (for countries of the EU-15, with data for Germany shown separately for West and East) come from the 2001 Eurobarometer Study (see Goldstein, Lutz, and Testa 2003). The US data come from sources examined in detail in this article and described fully below. Note that US average ideal family size is among the highest, but it is not unique. As in many other countries, mean ideal family size in the United States is clearly above 2.0. What is striking and unique about the US estimates is the coupling of the mean levels of intended fertility with correspondingly high levels of period fertility (TFR). The contrasting and dominant pattern is for fertility intentions to substantially exceed levels of contemporary fertility. FIGURE 1 Average ideal and expected family sizes and total fertility rates for countries of the EU-15 and the United States In this article, we 1) discuss the import of fertility ideals and intentions for understanding fertility levels, 2) propose a model that can account for variable inconsistency between attitude and behavior, and 3) use this model as a framework to examine trends in American women's fertility ideals, intentions, and actual fertility.

Is intimate partner violence associated with unintended pregnancy? A review of the literature.

Abstract: Although a substantial body of literature explores the adverse physical and mental health consequences associated with intimate partner violence, only a limited body of international research has explored the effect of intimate partner violence on women's fertility control. Yet a compelling argument can be made of the indirect mechanism through which the climate of fear and control surrounding abusive relationships could limit women's ability to control their fertility. Lack of fertility control can lead to unintended pregnancies, which are also associated with adverse outcomes for women's and infant health, especially in developing countries. The association between intimate partner violence and unintended pregnancy also suggests serious social effects spawned by a cycle of unintended childbearing in abusive households. Therefore, further investigation is warranted to explore the nature of the association as well as the mechanisms through which these phenomena operate in the United States and in developing countries.

Discussions Regarding Reproductive Health for Young Women With Breast Cancer Undergoing Chemotherapy

Abstract: Purpose Young women who undergo chemotherapy for breast cancer face serious consequences to their reproductive health. Research in this area has previously focused on men, or on childhood cancer survivors. We sought to explore self-report of reproductive health counseling in young women undergoing chemotherapy for breast cancer. Patients and Methods A total of 166 premenopausal women aged ≤ 50 years were recruited from oncology offices in academic and private practices in four northeastern states, as part of a randomized controlled clinical trial aimed at stress reduction. Women were asked a variety of questions regarding diagnosis and treatment, including whether they received any counseling regarding early menopause and fertility issues. Results Sixty-eight percent and 34% of women reported recalling a discussion with a physician regarding early menopause or fertility, respectively. In multivariate analysis, hormonal therapy and early stage of disease were associated with significantly increased odds of...

Attitudes toward male fertility control: results of a multinational survey on four continents

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Following extensive research activity to develop an effective agent to control male fertility, such a product may be available for use within ,5 years. However, little is known concerning contraceptive knowledge, desires and attitudes of men in different countries, and their acceptance of male fertility control (MFC). METHODS: A survey of >9000 males aged 18 – 50 years was performed in nine countries on four continents in 2002. The objective was to compare, on a cross-cultural basis, the knowledge, attitudes and acceptability of MFC among men and assess their willingness to use such a method. RESULTS: Between 50 and 83% of the male respondents currently use contraceptive methods, and 55 – 81.5% reported that both partners participate in selecting the method of contraception employed. Overall acceptance of hormonal MFC was high (>55%), with 28.5– 71.4% of survey participants of various nationalities expressing the willingness to use such a method. CONCLUSION: While MFC appears to be well accepted overall, the willingness to use this type of contraception varies widely between differing population groups. The specific characteristics and profile of any MFC product will have to be carefully evaluated to accurately assess its acceptance, both by men and their female partners.

The Effect of Life Expectancy on Fertility, Saving, Schooling and Economic Growth: Theory and Evidence*

Abstract: We construct a simple growth model where agents with uncertain survival choose schooling time, life-cycle consumption and the number of children. We show that rising longevity reduces fertility but raises saving, schooling time and the growth rate at a diminishing rate. Cross-section analyses using data from 76 countries support these propositions: life expectancy has a significant positive effect on the saving rate, secondary school enrollment and growth but a significant negative effect on fertility. Through sensitivity analyses, the effect on the saving rate is inconclusive, while the effects on the other variables are robust and consistent. These estimated effects are decreasing in life expectancy.

Antlers honestly advertise sperm production and quality

Abstract: Evolutionary theory proposes that exaggerated male traits have evolved via sexual selection, either through female mate choice or male-male competition. While female preferences for ornamented males have been amply demonstrated in other taxa, among mammals sexual characters are commonly regarded as weapons whose main function is to enhance male competitiveness in agonistic encounters. One particularly controversial hypothesis to explain the function of male sexual characters proposes that they advertise male fertility. We test this hypothesis in red deer (Cervus elaphus), a species where sexual characters (antlers) reach an extreme degree of elaboration. We find that a global measure of relative antler size and complexity is associated with relative testes size and sperm velocity. Our results exclude the possibility that condition dependence, age or time of culling, drive these associations. Red deer antlers could signal male fertility to females, the ability to avoid sperm depletion throughout the reproductive season and/or the competitive ability of ejaculates. By contrast, male antlers could also signal to other males not only their competitive ability at the behavioural level (fighting ability) but also at the physiological level (sperm competition).

“The Motherhood Wage Gap for Women in the United States: The Importance of College and Fertility Delay”

Abstract: One of the stylized facts from the past 30 years has been the declining rate of first births before age 30 for all women and the increase rate of first births after age 30 among women with four-year college degrees (Steven P. Martin, Demography, 37(4), 523–533, 2000). What are some of the factors behind women’s decision to postpone their childbearing? We hypothesize that the wage difference often observed between like-educated mothers and non-mothers (Jane Waldfogel, Journal of Labor Economics, 16, 505–545, 1998a; Journal of Economic Perspectives 12(1) 137–156, 1998b) may be affected by the postponement of childbearing until after careers are fully established. Hence, we focus on college-educated women because they are typically more career-oriented than their non-college educated counterparts and also the group most often observed postponing maternity. We use individual-level data on women from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) in order to control for individual-level unobserved heterogeneity as well as human capital characteristics, such as actual work experience, in our empirical analysis. We estimate wage equations, first producing base-line results to compare to the existing literature. Then, we expand the basic wage equation model to address fundamental econometric issues and the education/fertility issue at hand. Our empirical findings are two-fold. First, we find that college-educated mothers do not experience a motherhood wage penalty at all. In fact, they enjoy a wage boost when compared to college-educated childless women. Second, fertility delay enhances this wage boost even further. Our results provide an explanation for the observed postponement of maternity for educated women. We argue that the wage boost experienced by college-educated mothers may be the result of their search for family–friendly work environments, which, in turn, yields job matches with more female-friendly firms offering greater opportunities for advancement.

Communication and coping as predictors of fertility problem stress: cohort study of 816 participants who did not achieve a delivery after 12 months of fertility treatment

Abstract: BACKGROUND: We investigated coping strategies and communication strategies as predictors of fertility problem stress 12 months after start of fertility treatment. METHODS: We used a prospective, longitudinal cohort design including 2250 people beginning fertility treatment with a 12-month follow-up. Data were based on self-administered questionnaires measuring communication with partner and with other people, coping strategies: active-avoidance coping, active-confronting coping, passive-avoidance coping, meaning-based coping, and fertility problem stress. The study population included those participants (n = 816, men and women) who had not achieved pregnancy by assisted reproduction or delivery at follow-up. RESULTS: Among both men and women, difficulties in partner communication predicted high fertility problem stress (odds ratio for women, 3.47, 95% confidence interval 2.09–5.76; odds ratio for men, 3.69, 95% confidence interval 2.09–6.43). Active-avoidance coping (e.g. avoiding being with pregnant women or children, turning to work to take their mind off things) was a significant predictor of high fertility problem stress. Among men, high use of active-confronting coping (e.g. letting feelings out, asking other people for advice, seeking social support) predicted low fertility problem stress in the marital domain (odds ratio 0.53, 95% confidence interval 0.28–1.00). Among women, medium or high use of meaning-based coping significantly predicted low fertility problem stress in the personal and marital domain. CONCLUSION: The study provides information about where to intervene with fertility patients in order to reduce their stress after medically unsuccessful treatment.

Fertility in female cancer survivors: pathophysiology, preservation and the role of ovarian reserve testing

Abstract: The improved long-term survival of adolescents and young women treated for cancer has resulted in an increased focus on the effects of chemotherapy on ovarian function and its preservation. These women may seek advice and treatment regarding their reproductive status, including ways of preserving their fertility and preventing a premature menopause--factors that can have a profound impact on their quality of life. This article comprehensively reviews ovarian reserve testing (ORT) in general. Special emphasis is placed on patients with cancer, including the pathophysiology of gonadal damage following chemotherapy, fertility preservation and the potential role of ORT. Baseline parameters of ovarian reserve [FSH LH, estradiol, inhibin B and anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH)] have not yet performed sufficiently well in predicting poor outcome in assisted reproduction, but biochemical markers of ovarian reserve appear to be better than chronological age. Inhibin B and AMH show potential for future use. Dynamic testing appears to show much promise, especially stimulated levels of inhibin B and estradiol. The most promising tests of ovarian reserve are the biophysical markers, where total antral follicle count was found to be most discriminatory followed by ovarian volume. Combination of biochemical, biophysical and clinical markers of ovarian reserve may also improve predictive capacity. However, there is a lack of data pertinent to ORT in cancer. As yet there is no single clinically useful test to predict ovarian reserve accurately. Patients with cancer represent a distinct cohort who have particular concerns about their future fertility and the possibility of a premature menopause, they can benefit greatly from knowledge of their functional ovarian reserve. Large, prospective, randomized, adequately controlled studies specific to different geographical areas are required in a control population of comparable reproductive age to determine the potential role of ORT in clinical practice.

Fertility and Social Security

Abstract: The data show that an increase in government provided old-age pensions is strongly correlated with a reduction in fertility. What type of model is consistent with this finding? We explore this question using two models of fertility: one by Barro and Becker (1989), and one inspired by Caldwell (1978, 1982) and developed by Boldrin and Jones (2002). In Barro and Becker's model parents have children because they perceive their children's lives as a continuation of their own. In Boldrin and Jones' framework parents procreate because children care about their parents' utility, and thus provide them with old-age transfers. The effect of increases in government provided pensions on fertility in the Barro and Becker model is very small, whereas the effect on fertility in the Boldrin and Jones model is sizeable and accounts for between 55 and 65% of the observed Europe-U.S. fertility differences both across countries and across time.