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Fullerene

About: Fullerene is a research topic. Over the lifetime, 12723 publications have been published within this topic receiving 359173 citations.


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TL;DR: In this paper, a review of the Raman scattering research on carbon cage molecules is presented, focusing on the fullerene C60 and to a lesser extent C70, and their comparison with model andabocalculations.
Abstract: Since the discovery in 1990 of a relatively simple arc method to synthesize gram quantities of carbon cage molecules (fullerenes), considerable research effort has been expended to understand the molecular and solid-state properties of fullerenes and fullerene-derived materials. Raman scattering has played an important role in this effort which has focused on the fullerene C60, and to a lesser extent C70. From Raman spectra and their comparison with model andab initiocalculations, fundamental questions regarding the intramolecular bonds, the structure and properties of crystalline, fullerene-derived solids, including the superconducting K3C60 and Rb3C60 compounds, have been addressed and largely understood. Raman scattering has also been used to probe pressure- and temperature-driven phase transitions and the photopolymerization of fullerenes in the solid state, in addition to the bonding of fullerene molecules to metal substrates. In this review the highlights of this Raman scattering research are discussed. Brief introductory remarks concerning the discovery and structure of fullerenes are also given.

149 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Kratschmer et al. as mentioned in this paper showed that C60 is more thermodynamically stable than other all-carbon molecules and proposed a party line mechanism for the formation of fullerenes.
Abstract: In 1985, Kroto et al. made the surprising discovery that C60 was unusually stable among the gas-phase carbon ions produced by laser vaporization of graphite.1 They hypothesized that this stability resulted from its truncated icosahedron structure and dubbed the ion “buckminsterfullerene” after the famous architect. Many gas-phase experiments and theoretical investigations that followed supported this claim, and the soccer-ball structure of C60 was finally confirmed in 1990, when Kratschmer and Huffman discovered a method for making macroscopic quantities of C60 and other larger “fullerenes” via resistive heating of graphite.2 Kratschmer and Huffman’s finding opened up new avenues for research and discovery. In addition, it presented a mechanistic puzzle to physical and organic chemists: How can such highly ordered compounds as the fullerenes form in significant yields in the entropic conditions of graphite vaporization? And why do these conditions produce more C60 than any other all-carbon molecule? Before the bulk isolation of fullerenes, Smalley and co-workers postulated a mechanism which they called the “party line” for fullerene formation in their laservaporization/molecular-beam source.3 In this scenario, small carbon particles would come together to form linear species, which would react with other linear species to make rings. Further addition of small linear chains would increase the size of the rings until they reached the 25-35-atom range. The party line mechanism assumes that, in that size domain, polycyclic networks resembling open graphitic sheets become thermodynamically most favorable. Smalley and co-workers hypothesized that these graphitic sheets are more reactive than rings or linear chains because they have more dangling bonds, and that to minimize the number of dangling bonds, the polycyclic network incorporates some pentagons, causing curvature. Occasionally, one of these cuplike pieces of graphite gathers enough pentagons in the right places to force it to close into a hollow cage, thereby forming a fullerene.3 Smalley and co-workers developed this theory to explain the observation of C60 ions in their initial cluster beam experiments. In these studies, only a small fraction of the carbon vapor became fullerenes, while the rest apparently formed large soot particles. The party line scheme therefore offered an explanation of a rare but noticeable event. Most of the nucleating carbon would, in this scenario, create large spiraling particles where the “growth edge” overshot the opposite edge of the graphite cup, forming a new layer of graphite surrounding it.3 Kroto and McKay extended this picture to account for the presence of polyhedral particles in soot, observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM).4 But this mechanism does not explain how soluble fullerenes like C60 can form in macroscopic quantities, with yields of 20% and more. In searching for a replacement to the party line, it is helpful to understand some general information about fullerene production. Bulk fullerenes form from graphite vapor, produced via either resistive heating or a carbon arc under helium atmosphere in a pressure range of 100-400 Torr.5 Isotope studies involving vaporization of mixed samples of 12Cand 13C-graphite have shown that the reacting material first breaks down to atomic carbon or small fragments (C2 or C3) before recondensing into fullerenes.6 In addition, production of fullerenes in an electric field leads to their isolation almost entirely from the cathode, rather than the anode, suggesting that cations are important to the reaction.7 Although varying the conditions of bulk production can alter the ratio of isolated C60 to C70 considerably, generally C60 is the dominant product, with fullerenes forming in up to 40% overall yield.8 However, C60 is less thermodynamically stable than the larger fullerenes, according to both theoretical9 and experimental10 evidence.

149 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a series of porphyrin-peptide oligomers and fullerenes were assembled as three-dimensional arrays onto a nanostructured SnO2 electrode using an electrophoretic deposition method.
Abstract: We have constructed supramolecular solar cells composed of a series of porphyrin–peptide oligomers [porphyrin functionalized α-polypeptides, P(H2P)n or P(ZnP)n (n = 1, 2, 4, 8, 16)], and fullerenes assembled on a nanostructured SnO2 electrode using an electrophoretic deposition method. Remarkable enhancement in the photoelectrochemical performance as well as the broader photoresponse in the visible and near-infrared regions is seen with increasing the number of porphyrin units in α-polypeptide structures. Formation of supramolecular clusters of porphyrins and fullerenes prepared in acetonitrile–toluene = 3 : 1 has been confirmed by transmission electron micrographs (TEM) and the absorption spectra. The highly colored composite clusters of porphyrin–peptide oligomers and fullerenes have been assembled as three-dimensional arrays onto nanostructured SnO2 films using an electrophoretic deposition method. A high power conversion efficiency (η) of ∼1.6% and the maximum incident photon-to-photocurrent efficiency (IPCE = 56%) were attained using composite clusters of free base and zinc porphyrin–peptide hexadecamers [P(H2P)16 and P(ZnP)16] with fullerenes, respectively. Femtosecond transient absorption and fluorescence measurements of porphyrin–fullerene composite films confirm improved electron-transfer properties with increasing number of porphyrins in a polypeptide unit. The formation of molecular assemblies between porphyrins and fullerenes with a polypeptide structure controls the electron-transfer efficiency in the supramolecular complexes, meeting the criteria required for efficient light energy conversion.

149 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Jan 2004-Carbon
TL;DR: In this article, the structure of C 60 fullerene aqueous solution in dependence on the concentration in the water was studied and analyzed in detail using various spectroscopic techniques such as UV-VIS, Raman and IR-spectroscopy and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS).

149 citations


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Performance
Metrics
No. of papers in the topic in previous years
YearPapers
2023542
20221,244
2021366
2020346
2019411
2018420