Showing papers on "Geographic routing published in 2012"

A survey on routing protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks

Abstract: This paper presents a survey of state-of-the-art routing techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). Compared with traditional wireless networks, WSNs are characterized with denser levels of node deployment, higher unreliability of sensor nodes and severe power, computation and memory constraints. Various design challenges such as energy efficiency, data delivery models, quality of service, overheads etc., for routing protocols in WSNs are highlighted. We addressed most of the proposed routing methods along with scheme designs, benefits and result analysis wherever possible. The routing protocols discussed are classified into seven categories such as Data centric routing, Hierarchical routing, Location based routing, Negotiation based routing, Multipath based routing, Quality of Service (QoS) routing and Mobility based routing. This paper also compares the routing protocols against parameters such as power consumption, scalability, mobility, optimal routing and data aggregation. The paper concludes with possible open research issues in WSNs.

A Survey on Clustering Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks

Abstract: The past few years have witnessed increased interest in the potential use of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in a wide range of applications and it has become a hot research area. Based on network structure, routing protocols in WSNs can be divided into two categories: flat routing and hierarchical or clustering routing. Owing to a variety of advantages, clustering is becoming an active branch of routing technology in WSNs. In this paper, we present a comprehensive and fine grained survey on clustering routing protocols proposed in the literature for WSNs. We outline the advantages and objectives of clustering for WSNs, and develop a novel taxonomy of WSN clustering routing methods based on complete and detailed clustering attributes. In particular, we systematically analyze a few prominent WSN clustering routing protocols and compare these different approaches according to our taxonomy and several significant metrics. Finally, we summarize and conclude the paper with some future directions.

Hierarchical Trust Management for Wireless Sensor Networks and its Applications to Trust-Based Routing and Intrusion Detection

Abstract: We propose a highly scalable cluster-based hierarchical trust management protocol for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) to effectively deal with selfish or malicious nodes. Unlike prior work, we consider multidimensional trust attributes derived from communication and social networks to evaluate the overall trust of a sensor node. By means of a novel probability model, we describe a heterogeneous WSN comprising a large number of sensor nodes with vastly different social and quality of service (QoS) behaviors with the objective to yield "ground truth" node status. This serves as a basis for validating our protocol design by comparing subjective trust generated as a result of protocol execution at runtime against objective trust obtained from actual node status. To demonstrate the utility of our hierarchical trust management protocol, we apply it to trust-based geographic routing and trust-based intrusion detection. For each application, we identify the best trust composition and formation to maximize application performance. Our results indicate that trust-based geographic routing approaches the ideal performance level achievable by flooding-based routing in message delivery ratio and message delay without incurring substantial message overhead. For trust-based intrusion detection, we discover that there exists an optimal trust threshold for minimizing false positives and false negatives. Furthermore, trust-based intrusion detection outperforms traditional anomaly-based intrusion detection approaches in both the detection probability and the false positive probability.

A survey of naming and routing in information-centric networks

Abstract: The concept of information-centric networking (ICN) defines a new communication model that focuses on what is being exchanged rather than which network entities are exchanging information. From the ICN perspective, contents are first class network citizens instead of hosts. ICN's primary objective is to shift the current host-oriented communication model toward a content-centric model for effective distribution of content over the network. In recent years this paradigm shift has generated much interest in the research community and sprung several research projects around the globe to investigate and advance this stream of thought. Content naming and content-based routing are core research challenges in this research community. In this survey, we analyze, compare, and contrast the naming and routing mechanisms proposed by some of the most prominent ICN research projects.

Multipath Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks: Survey and Research Challenges

Abstract: A wireless sensor network is a large collection of sensor nodes with limited power supply and constrained computational capability. Due to the restricted communication range and high density of sensor nodes, packet forwarding in sensor networks is usually performed through multi-hop data transmission. Therefore, routing in wireless sensor networks has been considered an important field of research over the past decade. Nowadays, multipath routing approach is widely used in wireless sensor networks to improve network performance through efficient utilization of available network resources. Accordingly, the main aim of this survey is to present the concept of the multipath routing approach and its fundamental challenges, as well as the basic motivations for utilizing this technique in wireless sensor networks. In addition, we present a comprehensive taxonomy on the existing multipath routing protocols, which are especially designed for wireless sensor networks. We highlight the primary motivation behind the development of each protocol category and explain the operation of different protocols in detail, with emphasis on their advantages and disadvantages. Furthermore, this paper compares and summarizes the state-of-the-art multipath routing techniques from the network application point of view. Finally, we identify open issues for further research in the development of multipath routing protocols for wireless sensor networks.

A cluster-based routing protocol for wireless sensor networks with nonuniform node distribution

Abstract: Due to the nonuniform node distribution, the energy consumption among nodes are more imbalanced in cluster-based wireless sensor networks. Based on this problem, in this paper, a cluster-based routing protocol for wireless sensor networks with nonuniform node distribution is proposed, which includes an energy-aware clustering algorithm EADC and a cluster-based routing algorithm. EADC uses competition range to construct clusters of even sizes. At the same time, the routing algorithm increases forwarding tasks of the nodes in scarcely covered areas by forcing cluster heads to choose nodes with higher energy and fewer member nodes as their next hops, and finally, achieves load balance among cluster heads. Theoretical analysis and simulation results show that our protocol can balance the energy consumption among nodes and increase the network lifetime significantly.

A hierarchical clustering and routing procedure for large scale disaster relief logistics planning

Abstract: We describe a hierarchical cluster and route procedure (HOGCR) for coordinating vehicle routing in large-scale post-disaster distribution and evacuation activities. The HOGCR is a multi-level clustering algorithm that groups demand nodes into smaller clusters at each planning level, enabling the optimal solution of cluster routing problems. The routing problems are represented as capacitated network flow models that are solved optimally and independently by CPLEX on a parallel computing platform. The HOGCR preserves the consistency among parent and child cluster solutions obtained at consecutive levels. We assess the performance of the algorithm by using large scale scenarios and find satisfactory results.

Exploiting Friendship Relations for Efficient Routing in Mobile Social Networks

Abstract: Routing in delay tolerant networks is a challenging problem due to the intermittent connectivity between nodes resulting in the frequent absence of end-to-end path for any source-destination pair at any given time. Recently, this problem has attracted a great deal of interest and several approaches have been proposed. Since Mobile Social Networks (MSNs) are increasingly popular type of Delay Tolerant Networks (DTNs), making accurate analysis of social network properties of these networks is essential for designing efficient routing protocols. In this paper, we introduce a new metric that detects the quality of friendships between nodes accurately. Utilizing this metric, we define the community of each node as the set of nodes having close friendship relations with this node either directly or indirectly. We also present Friendship-Based Routing in which periodically differentiated friendship relations are used in forwarding of messages. Extensive simulations on both real and synthetic traces show that the introduced algorithm is more efficient than the existing algorithms.

Link-Stability and Energy Aware Routing Protocol in Distributed Wireless Networks

Abstract: Energy awareness for computation and protocol management is becoming a crucial factor in the design of protocols and algorithms. On the other hand, in order to support node mobility, scalable routing strategies have been designed and these protocols try to consider the path duration in order to respect some QoS constraints and to reduce the route discovery procedures. Often energy saving and path duration and stability can be two contrasting efforts and trying to satisfy both of them can be very difficult. In this paper, a novel routing strategy is proposed. This proposed approach tries to account for link stability and for minimum drain rate energy consumption. In order to verify the correctness of the proposed solution a biobjective optimization formulation has been designed and a novel routing protocol called Link-stAbility and Energy aware Routing protocols (LAER) is proposed. This novel routing scheme has been compared with other three protocols: PERRA, GPSR, and E-GPSR. The protocol performance has been evaluated in terms of Data Packet Delivery Ratio, Normalized Control Overhead, Link duration, Nodes lifetime, and Average energy consumption.

Enhancing Real-Time Delivery of Gradient Routing for Industrial Wireless Sensor Networks

Abstract: This paper proposes gradient routing with two-hop information for industrial wireless sensor networks to enhance real-time performance with energy efficiency. Two-hop information routing is adopted from the two-hop velocity-based routing, and the proposed routing algorithm is based on the number of hops to the sink instead of distance. Additionally, an acknowledgment control scheme reduces energy consumption and computational complexity. The simulation results show a reduction in end-to-end delay and enhanced energy efficiency.

Social feature-based multi-path routing in delay tolerant networks

Abstract: Most routing protocols for delay tolerant networks resort to the sufficient state information, including trajectory and contact information, to ensure routing efficiency. However, state information tends to be dynamic and hard to obtain without a global and/or long-term collection process. In this paper, we use the internal social features of each node in the network to perform the routing process. This approach is motivated from several social contact networks, such as the Infocom 2006 trace, where people contact each other more frequently if they have more social features in common. Our approach includes two unique processes: social feature extraction and multi-path routing. In social feature extraction, we use entropy to extract the m most informative social features to create a feature space (F-space): (F 1 , F 2 , …, F m ), where F i corresponds to a feature. The routing method then becomes a hypercube-based feature matching process where the routing process is a step-by-step feature difference resolving process. We offer two special multi-path routing schemes: node-disjoint-based routing and delegation-based routing. Extensive simulations on both real and synthetic traces are conducted in comparison with several existing approaches, including spray-and-wait routing and spray-and-focus routing.

Lifetime Enhancement in Wireless Sensor Networks Using Fuzzy Approach and A-Star Algorithm

Abstract: Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are used in many applications to gather sensitive information which is then forwarded to an analysis center. Resource limitations have to be taken into account when designing a WSN infrastructure. Unbalanced energy consumption is an inherent problem in WSNs, characterized by multihop routing and a many-to-one traffic pattern. This uneven energy dissipation can significantly reduce network lifetime. This paper proposes a new routing method for WSNs to extend network lifetime using a combination of a fuzzy approach and an A-star algorithm. The proposal is to determine an optimal routing path from the source to the destination by favoring the highest remaining battery power, minimum number of hops, and minimum traffic loads. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method in terms of balancing energy consumption and maximization of network lifetime, we compare our approach with the A-star search algorithm and fuzzy approach using the same routing criteria in two different topographical areas. Simulation results demonstrate that the network lifetime achieved by the proposed method could be increased by nearly 25% more than that obtained by the A-star algorithm and by nearly 20% more than that obtained by the fuzzy approach.

A New Scalable Hybrid Routing Protocol for VANETs

Abstract: Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) are highly mobile wireless networks that are designed to support vehicular safety, traffic monitoring, and other commercial applications. Within VANETs, vehicle mobility will cause the communication links between vehicles to frequently be broken. Such link failures require a direct response from the routing protocols, leading to a potentially excessive increase in the routing overhead and degradation in network scalability. In this paper, we propose a new hybrid location-based routing protocol that is particularly designed to address this issue. Our new protocol combines features of reactive routing with location-based geographic routing in a manner that efficiently uses all the location information available. The protocol is designed to gracefully exit to reactive routing as the location information degrades. We show through analysis and simulation that our protocol is scalable and has an optimal overhead, even in the presence of high location errors. Our protocol provides an enhanced yet pragmatic location-enabled solution that can be deployed in all VANET-type environments.

Routing using cached source routes from message headers

Abstract: In one embodiment, an intermediate node of a computer network can receive a message intended for a destination. The message can include a header indicating a source route. The intermediate node can determine a routing entry for a routing entry for the destination associated with a next hop based on the source route and cache the routing entry. The intermediate node can further receive a second message intended for the destination that does not indicate the next hop, and transmit the second message according to the cached routing entry.

Spectrum-Aware Opportunistic Routing in Multi-Hop Cognitive Radio Networks

Abstract: In this paper, cognitive routing coupled with spectrum sensing and sharing in a multi-channel multi-hop cognitive radio network (CRN) is investigated. Recognizing the spectrum dynamics in CRN, we propose an opportunistic cognitive routing (OCR) protocol that allows users to exploit the geographic location information and discover the local spectrum access opportunities to improve the transmission performance over each hop. Specifically, based on location information and channel usage statistics, a secondary user (SU) distributedly selects the next hop relay and adapts its transmission to the dynamic spectrum access opportunities in its neighborhood. In addition, we introduce a novel metric, namely, cognitive transport throughput (CTT), to capture the unique properties of CRN and evaluate the potential relay gain of each relay candidate. A heuristic algorithm is proposed to reduce the searching complexity of the optimal selection of channel and relay. Simulation results are given to demonstrate that our proposed OCR well adapts to the spectrum dynamics and outperforms existing routing protocols in CRN.

System and method for accepting information from routing messages into a list

Abstract: A system and method adds and manages entries on a list of entries of routing information to allow the top entry to be used for routing to a destination corresponding to the list. Costs of a wireless link may be a function of the success rate experienced on that wireless link.

Automatic routing using multiple prefix labels

Abstract: We present Multi-label Automatic Routing (MAR), the first compact routing protocol that attains a low path stretch (ratio of selected path length to the optimal path length) while maintaining a low routing state for mobile networks. MAR is resilient to node movements in the network. In MAR, nodes assign themselves labels based on their location in the network through a distributed algorithm. Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs) for the node to label mappings are established in some anchor nodes. Once the labels are established, the routing is automatic based on the positional labels of the nodes and DHT lookups. This eliminates flooding completely. Unlike traditional routing protocols MAR does not need destinations-based routing tables. Hence, MAR has a small routing state. With the use of multiple labels per node, the average path length is close to the shortest path and there are multiple paths between source and destination nodes. In Qualnet simulations MAR shows a path stretch close to or better than traditional table-driven and on-demand protocols like OLSR and AODV. Simulation results also show shorter end-to-end delays due to the automatic routing. The delivery ratio of MAR is comparable to these traditional protocols but with a significantly lower network overhead.

Toward Reliable Data Delivery for Highly Dynamic Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Abstract: This paper addresses the problem of delivering data packets for highly dynamic mobile ad hoc networks in a reliable and timely manner. Most existing ad hoc routing protocols are susceptible to node mobility, especially for large-scale networks. Driven by this issue, we propose an efficient Position-based Opportunistic Routing (POR) protocol which takes advantage of the stateless property of geographic routing and the broadcast nature of wireless medium. When a data packet is sent out, some of the neighbor nodes that have overheard the transmission will serve as forwarding candidates, and take turn to forward the packet if it is not relayed by the specific best forwarder within a certain period of time. By utilizing such in-the-air backup, communication is maintained without being interrupted. The additional latency incurred by local route recovery is greatly reduced and the duplicate relaying caused by packet reroute is also decreased. In the case of communication hole, a Virtual Destination-based Void Handling (VDVH) scheme is further proposed to work together with POR. Both theoretical analysis and simulation results show that POR achieves excellent performance even under high node mobility with acceptable overhead and the new void handling scheme also works well.

Opportunistic routing based on daily routines

Abstract: Opportunistic routing is being investigated to enable the proliferation of low-cost wireless applications. A recent trend is looking at social structures, inferred from the social nature of human mobility, to bring messages close to a destination. To have a better picture of social structures, social-based opportunistic routing solutions should consider the dynamism of users' behavior resulting from their daily routines. We address this challenge by presenting dLife, a routing algorithm able to capture the dynamics of the network represented by time-evolving social ties between pair of nodes. Experimental results based on synthetic mobility models and real human traces show that dLife has better delivery probability, latency, and cost than proposals based on social structures.

An Efficient Prediction-Based Routing in Disruption-Tolerant Networks

Abstract: Routing is one of the most challenging, open problems in disruption-tolerant networks (DTNs) because of the short-lived wireless connectivity environment. To deal with this issue, researchers have investigated routing based on the prediction of future contacts, taking advantage of nodes' mobility history. However, most of the previous work focused on the prediction of whether two nodes would have a contact, without considering the time of the contact. This paper proposes predict and relay (PER), an efficient routing algorithm for DTNs, where nodes determine the probability distribution of future contact times and choose a proper next-hop in order to improve the end-to-end delivery probability. The algorithm is based on two observations: one is that nodes usually move around a set of well-visited landmark points instead of moving randomly; the other is that node mobility behavior is semi-deterministic and could be predicted once there is sufficient mobility history information. Specifically, our approach employs a time-homogeneous semi-Markov process model that describes node mobility as transitions between landmarks. Then, we extend it to handle the scenario where we consider the transition time between two landmarks. A simulation study shows that this approach improves the delivery ratio and also reduces the delivery latency compared to traditional DTN routing schemes.

A chain-cluster based routing algorithm for wireless sensor networks

Abstract: Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are an emerging technology for monitoring physical world. Different from the traditional wireless networks and ad hoc networks, the energy constraint of WSNs makes energy saving become the most important goal of various routing algorithms. For this purpose, a cluster based routing algorithm LEACH (low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy) has been proposed to organize a sensor network into a set of clusters so that the energy consumption can be evenly distributed among all the sensor nodes. Periodical cluster head voting in LEACH, however, consumes non-negligible energy and other resources. While another chain-based algorithm PEGASIS (power- efficient gathering in sensor information systems) can reduce such energy consumption, it causes a longer delay for data transmission. In this paper, we propose a routing algorithm called CCM (Chain-Cluster based Mixed routing), which makes full use of the advantages of LEACH and PEGASIS, and provide improved performance. It divides a WSN into a few chains and runs in two stages. In the first stage, sensor nodes in each chain transmit data to their own chain head node in parallel, using an improved chain routing protocol. In the second stage, all chain head nodes group as a cluster in a self- organized manner, where they transmit fused data to a voted cluster head using the cluster based routing. Experimental results demonstrate that our CCM algorithm outperforms both LEACH and PEGASIS in terms of the product of consumed energy and delay, weighting the overall performance of both energy consumption and transmission delay.

Evaluating sinkhole defense techniques in RPL networks

Abstract: In this work, we present the results of a study on the detrimental effects of sinkhole attacks on Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) which employ the Routing Protocol for LLNs (Low-power and Lossy Networks). A sinkhole is a compromised node which attempts to capture traffic with the intent to drop messages, thus degrading the end-to-end delivery performance, that is, reducing the number of messages successfully delivered to their destination. The mechanism by which the sinkhole captures traffic is by advertising an attractive route to its neighbors. We evaluate two countermeasures addressing the sinkhole problem: a parent fail-over and a rank authentication technique. We show via simulation that while each technique, applied alone, does not work all that well, the combination of the two techniques significantly improves the performance of a network under attack. We also demonstrate that, with the defenses described, increasing the density of the network can combat a penetration of sinkholes nodes, without needing to identify the sinkholes.

CATT: potential based routing with content caching for ICN

Abstract: Information Centric Networking (ICN) has shown possibilities to solve several problems of the Internet. At the same time, some problems need to be tackled in order to advance this promising architecture. In this paper we address two of the problems, namely routing and content caching. For the routing, we introduce the Potential Based Routing (PBR) to achieve several design goals such as availability, adaptability, diversity, and robustness. In addition, we examine the performance of a random caching policy which can be a promising candidate for ICN. The integrated system of both PBR and a caching policy is named the Cache Aware Target idenTification (CATT). Simulation results demonstrate that PBR with replications located on less than 1% of total nodes can achieve a near optimal routing performance (close to the shortest path routing) even though a request message is randomly forwarded.

HYMN: A Novel Hybrid Multi-Hop Routing Algorithm to Improve the Longevity of WSNs

Abstract: Power-aware routing in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is designed to adequately prolong the lifetime of severely resource-constrained ad hoc wireless sensor nodes}. Recent research has identified the energy hole problem in single sink-based WSNs, a characteristic of the many-to-one (convergecast) traffic patterns. In this paper, we propose HYbrid Multi-hop routiNg (HYMN) algorithm, which is a hybrid of the two contemporary multi-hop routing algorithm architectures, namely, flat multi-hop routing that utilizes efficient transmission distances, and hierarchical multi-hop routing algorithms that capitalizes on data aggregation. We provide rigorous mathematical analysis for HYMN-optimize it and model its power consumption. In addition, through extensive simulations, we demonstrate the effective performance of HYMN in terms of superior connectivity.

Energy-aware topology design for wireless body area networks

Abstract: Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) represent one of the most promising approaches for improving the quality of life, allowing remote patient monitoring and other healthcare applications. In such networks, traffic routing plays an important role together with the positioning of relay nodes, which collect the information from biosensors and send it towards the sinks. This work investigates the optimal design of wireless body area networks by studying the joint data routing and relay positioning problem in a WBAN, in order to increase the network lifetime. To this end, we propose an integer linear programming model which optimizes the number and location of relays to be deployed and the data routing towards the sinks, minimizing both the network installation cost and the energy consumed by wireless sensors and relays. We solve the proposed model in realistic WBAN scenarios, and discuss the effect of different parameters on the characteristics of the planned networks. Numerical results demonstrate that our model can design energy-efficient and cost-effective wireless body area networks in a very short computing time, thus representing an interesting framework for the WBAN planning problem.

Context information prediction for social-based routing in opportunistic networks

Abstract: Context information can be used to streamline routing decisions in opportunistic networks. We propose a novel social context-based routing scheme that considers both the spatial and the temporal dimensions of the activity of mobile nodes to predict the mobility patterns of nodes based on the BackPropagation Neural Networks model.

Adaptive opportunistic routing for wireless ad hoc networks

Abstract: A distributed adaptive opportunistic routing scheme for multihop wireless ad hoc networks is proposed. The proposed scheme utilizes a reinforcement learning framework to opportunistically route the packets even in the absence of reliable knowledge about channel statistics and network model. This scheme is shown to be optimal with respect to an expected average per-packet reward criterion. The proposed routing scheme jointly addresses the issues of learning and routing in an opportunistic context, where the network structure is characterized by the transmission success probabilities. In particular, this learning framework leads to a stochastic routing scheme that optimally "explores" and "exploits" the opportunities in the network.

OPERA: Optimal Routing Metric for Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Networks

Abstract: Two main issues affect the existing routing metrics for cognitive radio ad hoc networks: i) they are often based on heuristics, and thus they have not been proved to be optimal; ii) they do not account for the route diversity effects, and thus they are not able to measure the actual cost of a route. In this paper, an optimal routing metric for cognitive radio ad hoc networks, referred to as OPERA, is proposed. OPERA is designed to achieve two features: i) Optimality: OPERA is optimal when combined with both Dijkstra and Bellman-Ford based routing protocols; ii) Accuracy: OPERA exploits the route diversity provided by the intermediate nodes to measure the actual end-to-end delay, by taking explicitly into account the unique characteristics of cognitive radio networks. A closed-form expression of the proposed routing metric is analytically derived for both static and mobile networks, and its optimality is proved rigorously. Performance evaluation is conducted through simulations, and the results reveal the benefits of adopting the proposed routing metric for cognitive radio ad hoc networks.