Showing papers on "Geographic routing published in 2020"

Trusted Secure Geographic Routing Protocol: outsider attack detection in mobile ad hoc networks by adopting trusted secure geographic routing protocol

Abstract: Purpose This study aims to evaluate the direct trust value for each node and calculate the trust value of all nodes satisfying the condition and update the trust value and value each trust update interval for a secure and efficient communication between sender and destination node. Hence, a Trusted Secure Geographic Routing Protocol (TSGRP) has been proposed for detecting attackers (presence of the hacker), considering the trust value for a node produced by combining the location trusted information and the direct trusted information. Design/methodology/approach Amelioration in the research studies related to mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) and wireless sensor networks has shown greater concern in the presence of malicious nodes, due to which the delivery percentage in any given network can degrade to a larger extent, and hence make the network less reliable and more vulnerable to security. Findings TSGRP has outperformed the conventional protocols for detecting attacks in MANET. TSGRP is establishing a trust-based secure communication between the sender and destination node. The evaluated direct trust value is used after the transmission of route-request and route-reply packets, to evaluate the direct trust value of each node and a secure path is established between the sender and the destination node. The effectiveness of the proposed TSGRP is evaluated through NS-2 simulation. Originality/value The simulation results show the delay of the proposed method is 92% less than PRISM approach and the overhead of the proposed TSGRP approach is 61% less than PRISM approach.

A Connectivity-Prediction-Based Dynamic Clustering Model for VANET in an Urban Scene

Abstract: Maintaining network connectivity is an important challenge for vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) in an urban scene, which has more complex road conditions than highways and suburban areas. Most existing studies analyze end-to-end connectivity probability under a certain node distribution model, and reveal the relationship among network connectivity, node density, and a communication range. Because of various influencing factors and changing communication states, most of their results are not applicable to VANET in an urban scene. In this article, we propose a connectivity prediction-based dynamic clustering (DC) model for VANET in an urban scene. First, we introduce a connectivity prediction method (CP) according to the features of a vehicle node and relative features among vehicle nodes. Then, we formulate a DC model based on connectivity among vehicle nodes and vehicle node density. Finally, we present a DC model-based routing method to realize stable communications among vehicle nodes. The experimental results show that the proposed CP can achieve a lower error rate than the geographic routing based on predictive locations and multilayer perceptron. The proposed routing method can achieve lower end-to-end latency and higher delivery rate than the greedy perimeter stateless routing and modified distributed and mobility-adaptive clustering-based methods.

RSU-Assisted Traffic-Aware Routing Based on Reinforcement Learning for Urban Vanets

Abstract: In urban vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs), the high mobility of vehicles along street roads poses daunting challenges to routing protocols and has a great impact on network performance. In addition, the frequent network partition caused by an uneven distribution of vehicles in an urban environment further places higher requirements on the routing protocols in VANETs. More importantly, the high vehicle density during the traffic peak hours and a variety of natural obstacles, such as tall buildings, other vehicles and trees, greatly increase the difficulty of protocol design for high quality communications. Considering these issues, in this paper, we introduce a novel routing protocol for urban VANETs called RSU-assisted Q-learning-based Traffic-Aware Routing (QTAR). Combining the advantages of geographic routing with the static road map information, QTAR learns the road segment traffic information based on the Q-learning algorithm. In QTAR, a routing path consists of multiple dynamically selected high reliability connection road segments that enable packets to reach their destination effectively. For packet forwarding within a road segment, distributed V2V Q-learning (Q-learning occurs between vehicles) integrated with QGGF (Q-greedy geographical forwarding) is adopted to reduce delivery delay and the effect of fast vehicle movements on path sensitivity, while distributed R2R Q-learning (Q-learning occurs between RSU units) is designed for packet forwarding at each intermediate intersection. In the case of a local optimum occurring in QGGF, SCF (store-carry-forward) is used to reduce the possibility of packet loss. Detailed simulation experimental results demonstrate that QTAR outperforms the existing traffic-aware routing protocols, in terms of 7.9% and 16.38% higher average packet delivery ratios than those of reliable traffic-aware routing (RTAR) and greedy traffic-aware routing (GyTAR) in high vehicular density scenarios and 30.96% and 46.19% lower average end-to-end delays with respect to RTAR and GyTAR in low vehicular density scenarios, respectively.

Routing Algorithm Based on Vehicle Position Analysis for Internet of Vehicles

Abstract: Geographic routing is a research hotspot of the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) and intelligent traffic system (ITS). In practice, the vehicle movement is not only affected by its characteristics and the relationship between the vehicle and position but also affected by some implicit factors. Pointing to this problem, we combine the vehicle moving position probability matrix, the vehicle position association matrix, and the implicit factors to study the influence of vehicle position potential features and vehicle association potential features and propose a routing algorithm based on vehicle position (RAVP) analysis, which can obtain the more accurate vehicle prediction trajectory. Then, the vehicle distance is obtained based on the vehicle prediction trajectory. By the normalization of vehicle distance and cache, the vehicle data forwarding capability is obtained and the transmission decision is made. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm outperforms the other three routing algorithms in terms of packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay, and routing overhead ratio.

Link utility aware geographic routing for urban VANETs using two-hop neighbor information

Abstract: Routing in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) is a challenging problem. While geographic routing protocols are preferred for VANETs due to their scalability, they are focused on finding next-hop nodes closer to the destination without considering their current load or network traffic. In addition, routing decisions based on only one-hop neighbors information might be less optimal since they do not consider the availability of further suitable nodes for forwarding. Thus, such selected next-hop nodes may become overloaded with too much traffic that exceeds their available bandwidth, and may even result in significant packet losses if no other node suitable for forwarding can be found. In this paper, we propose a novel geographic routing protocol named Geo-LU. The proposed protocol improves the routing performance by extending the local view of the network topology at the current forwarder to include two-hop neighbor information. Moreover, it utilizes our proposed link utility (LU) measure. LU considers the utility of a two-hop neighbor link by considering the minimum residual bandwidth on that link and its packet loss rate. By incorporating two-hop neighbor information and our proposed LU measure, the proposed protocol, Geo-LU, can react appropriately to the increased network traffic and to the frequent topology dis-connectivity in VANETs as confirmed by our simulation results.

3D geographical routing protocols in wireless ad hoc and sensor networks: an overview

Abstract: Geographical routing is a prominent area of research in wireless networks where route establishment is based on known locations of wireless nodes. The location may be an exact physical location or virtual location. Many geographical routing protocols based on greedy and face routing approach have been designed for 2D networks, but these protocols may not be suitable in 3D environment like hill area, airborne networks, underground networks, underwater networks and so forth. The objective of this paper is to provide the research issues and challenges of geographical routing in the three-dimensional surface. These routing techniques suffer from many problems like energy efficiency, localization, mobility, load balancing, routing stretch, void node problems, etc. These issues have been addressed in the literature survey. In this paper, the recent research papers related to geographical routing have been discussed, but the main focus is on 3D geographic routing techniques, issues and challenges.

Time Synchronized Node Localization Using Optimal H-Node Allocation in a Small World WSN

Abstract: Time synchronization and node localization over a wireless sensor network (WSN) is a vital problem in applications such as Internet of Things (IoT) and context-aware pervasive systems. Addressing this problem leads to an efficient data fusion, power scheduling, bandwidth utilization, geographic routing, time-based channel sharing, and clustering among sensor nodes. In a WSN, sensor nodes utilize multi-hop data transmission model towards the data transfer. Utilization of large number of hops for the data transfer leads to poor time synchronization resulting in erroneous node location estimates. In this letter, we make use of a recent development in social networks termed as small world characteristics and propose a novel method of time synchronized node localization over a small world WSN (SW-WSN). The results are obtained via simulations over a medium scale WSN. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated by conducting detailed analysis of time synchronization and node localization errors over the SW-WSN. The results obtained illustrate that the proposed small world model yields improved localization results when compared to results obtained over a regular WSN.

An energy-aware and load balanced distributed geographic routing algorithm for wireless sensor networks with dynamic hole

Abstract: The increasing usage of wireless sensor networks in human life is an indication of the high importance of this technology. Holes in wireless sensor networks are non-operating areas that can happen for a variety of reasons, like natural obstacles and disasters. Detection and packet routing in the presence of holes have always been the main challenges of facing this technology. As a result, most of the research on wireless sensor networks has been concerned with the problem of routing through bypassing routing holes. Considering the fact that the hole detection method for transmitting data in wireless sensor networks has a considerable impact on the energy consumption of the network, this paper attempts to provide a solution in the field of routing with the aim of increasing the network lifetime. In this method, considering networks with a dynamic hole, a distributed algorithm is proposed that can quickly determine and update the hole boundary. According to the hole, the packets are guided along an escape path around the hole which can improve and extend network lifetime. Results of experimental simulation are compared with the well-known and successful routing methods in the wireless sensor networks. This comparison shows that the proposed method reduces the dead nodes by at least 11% and 8% considering the effect of the time and the number of the nodes, in turn. Furthermore, the network lifetime has been improved by 2.71% based on the effect of the time and 1.47% based on the number of the nodes.

A Fast Hybrid Data Sharing Framework for Hierarchical Mobile Edge Computing

Abstract: Edge computing satisfies the stringent latency requirements of data access and processing for applications running on edge devices. The data location service is a key function to provide data storage and retrieval to enable these applications. However, it still lacks research of a scalable and low-latency data location service in mobile edge computing. Meanwhile, the existing solutions, such as DNS and DHT, fail to meet the low latency requirement of mobile edge computing. This paper presents a low-latency hybrid data-sharing framework, HDS, in which the data location service is divided into two parts: intra-region and inter-region. In the intra-region part, we design a data sharing protocol called Cuckoo Summary to achieve fast data localization. In the inter-region part, we develop a geographic routing based scheme to achieve efficient data localization with only one overlay hop. The advantages of HDS include short response latency, low implementation overhead, and few false positives. We implement our HDS framework based on a P4 prototype. The experimental results show that, compared to the state-of-the-art solutions, our design achieves 50.21% shorter lookup paths and 92.75% fewer false positives.

An optimization of distributed Voronoi-based collaboration for energy-efficient geographic routing in wireless sensor networks

Abstract: In energy-constrained wireless sensor networks (WSNs), geographic routing (GR) also known as location-aware routing has been developed because it uses neighbourhood locality data as an alternative of overall topology information for routing. But, this protocol frequently suffers from the energy holes in the data transmission resulting in path failure. To avoid this problem, energy-aware dual-path GR (EDGR) protocol has been suggested to improve the routing path from energy holes. However, it is unable to heal the energy holes since the node mobility can generate new energy holes. Also, higher mobility distance can cause high energy consumption (EC) and node failure. Hence in this article, an energy-efficient distributed collaboration mechanism is proposed with EDGR for $$k$$ -coverage energy holes detection and healing in WSN that minimizes the delivery delay (DD). In this protocol, the distributed Voronoi-based collaboration (DVOC) method is applied in which the nodes can cooperate in energy holes detection and recovery. The nodes are enabled to monitor each other node’s critical locations around themselves by constructing the local Voronoi diagrams (LVDs). Moreover, an optimized DVOC (ODVOC) is proposed with EDGR in which intelligent water drop (IWD) algorithm is used to find the globally optimized routes to minimize the DD. Finally, the simulation outcomes demonstrate the ODVOC-EDGR accomplishes higher effectiveness than the EDGR and DVOC-EDGR in terms of different performance metrics.

A new position based routing algorithm for vehicular ad hoc networks

Abstract: The main requirement to make safer journey in VANET environment is minimum delay with high packet delivery rate. This ensures that all data packets are received with minimal delay to prevent any accident. This paper presents a new algorithm for VANET class routing protocol that covers sparse and coarse region of vehicles. It takes the advantage of road layout to improve the performance of routing in VANETs. The proposed algorithm uses real-time GPS tracking system to obtain traffic information for creating road based paths from source node to destination node. The optimize forwarding is used to figure out the forwarding node along the road pattern that form the path to deliver the data packets. The results shows that proposed algorithm obtain better results considering the various simulation parameters.

FNTAR: A Future Network Topology-aware Routing protocol in UAV networks

Abstract: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can gather data in the air and transmit the data to the ground station. Multi-UAV systems have been used in an increasing number of mission scenarios and routing protocols play a critical role in UAV network communications. It is now well established that unstable link quality and frequently changing network topology pose significant challenges for messages forwarding in UAV networks. Hence, traditional mobile ad-hoc network routing protocols do not fit well in UAV networks. In many UAV applications, the flight paths of UAVs are planned in advance before performing missions. The positions and motion information of UAVs are available through Global Positioning System (GPS) and inertial sensors, which can be utilized to calculate the future positions of UAVs. Therefore, the future topology of the UAV network is also available. However, existing work does not take advantage of this information. Based on the trajectory, location and motion information of the UAVs, this paper proposes a future network topology-aware routing (FNTAR) protocol, which uses future location information to make superior routing decisions. Moreover, to mitigate data loss problems caused by unstable links and highly dynamic topology, FNTAR can forward messages to multiple excellent next-hop UAVs based on future network topology, and these UAVs can deliver messages to destinations faster. We implement FNTAR in the simulation experiment, the simulation results demonstrate that FNTAR can achieve lower latency and higher delivery ratio than DTN geo protocol.

Hyperbolic Embeddings for Near-Optimal Greedy Routing

Abstract: Greedy routing computes paths between nodes in a network by successively moving to the neighbor closest to the target with respect to coordinates given by an embedding into some metric space. Its advantage is that only local information is used for routing decisions. We present different algorithms for generating graph embeddings into the hyperbolic plane that are well suited for greedy routing. In particular, our embeddings guarantee that greedy routing always succeeds in reaching the target, and we try to minimize the lengths of the resulting greedy paths. We evaluate our algorithm on multiple generated and real-world networks. For networks that are generally assumed to have a hidden underlying hyperbolic geometry, such as the Internet graph [3], we achieve near-optimal results (i.e., the resulting greedy paths are only slightly longer than the corresponding shortest paths). In the case of the Internet graph, they are only 6% longer when using our best algorithm, which greatly improves upon the previous best known embedding, whose creation required substantial manual intervention. In addition to measuring the stretch, we empirically evaluate our algorithms regarding the size of the coordinates of the resulting embeddings and observe how it impacts the success rate when coordinates are not represented with very high precision. Since numerical difficulties are a major issue when performing computations in the hyperbolic plane, we consider variations of our algorithm that improve the success rate when using coordinates with lower precision.

Intertwined localization and error-resilient geographic routing for mobile wireless sensor networks

Abstract: Geographic routing in wireless sensor networks brings numerous inherent advantages, albeit its performance relying heavily on accurate node locations. In mobile networks, localization of the continuously moving nodes is a challenging task and location errors are inevitable and affect considerably routing decisions. Our proposal is in response to the unrealistic assumption widely made by previous geographic routing protocols that the accurate location of mobile nodes can be obtained at any time. Such idealized assumption results in under-performing or infeasible routing protocols for the real world applications. In this paper, we propose INTEGER, a localization method intertwined with a new location-error-resilient geographic routing specifically designed for mobile sensor networks even when these networks are intermittently connected. By combining the localization phase with the geographic routing process, INTEGER can select a relay node based on nodes’ mobility predictions from the localization phase. Results show that INTEGER improves the efficiency of the routing by increasing the packet delivery ratio and by reducing the energy consumption while minimizing the number of relay nodes compared to six prevalent protocols from the literature.

SMURF: Reliable Multipath Routing in Flying Ad-Hoc Networks

Abstract: In a Flying Ad-Hoc Network, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), (i.e. drones or quadcopters), use wireless communication to exchange data, status updates, and commands between each other and with the control center. However, due to the movement of UAVs, maintaining communication is difficult, particularly when multiple hops are needed to reach the destination. In this work, we propose the Stochastic Multipath UAV Routing for FANETs (SMURF) protocol, which exploits trajectory tracking information from the drones to compute the routes with the highest reliability. SMURF is a centralized protocol, as the control center gathers location updates and sends routing commands following the Software Defined Networking (SDN) paradigm over a separate long-range low bitrate technology such as LoRaWAN. Additionally, SMURF exploits multiple routes, to increase the probability that at least one of the routes is usable. Simulation results show a significant reliability improvement over purely distance-based routing, and that just 3 routes are enough to achieve performance very close to oracle-based routing with perfect information.

GROLL: Geographic Routing for Low Power and Lossy IoT Networks

Abstract: Routing in low-power lossy networks (LLNs) remains an important research problem for Internet of Things (IoT), despite the recent standardization in RFC 6550 of RPL as an IPv6 Routing Protocol [1]. Recent deployment experiences [2] have emphasized the challenges faced by a complex design in real world deployments. One of the key challenges is versatile routing protocol design that can handle efficiently and seamlessly various combinations of routing primitives, namely unicast, multicast, and convergecast. Although RPL supports these traffic types, due to its design principle oriented around data collection, its unicast and multicast functionalities are limited. In this article, we present the design and system implementation of the first Geographic Routing framework for Low Power and Lossy Networks (GROLL). GROLL’s routing engine effectively integrates routing for unicast, multicast, and convergecast and takes into account Complex Network Topologies (CNT), i.e., network holes and cuts. GROLL detects CNTs and abstracts the boundary information of detected CNTs with significantly reduced memory size. The proposed unified routing framework was implemented on real hardware and it was evaluated extensively on a testbed of 42 TelosB motes.

Geographic and Cooperative Opportunistic Routing Protocol for Underwater Sensor Networks

Abstract: Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs) are capable to explore the many unrevealed natural resources beneath the water, such as lakes, ponds, rivers, seas, and oceans. But there are so many challenges to be faced during the design of UWSN system due to the random nature of water waves. But, perhaps the most significant challenge in UWSNs is how to relay packets efficiently with minimum energy cost to the surface sink. This can be achieved by employing geographic and opportunistic routing schemes to transfer the packets at the surface sink reliably in cooperation with relay nodes. Considering these issues, we design a new routing protocol, called the Geographic and Cooperative Opportunistic Routing Protocol (GCORP), where data packets are routed from source node to the surface sink with the aid of relay nodes. In GCORP protocol, initially, a relay forwarding set is being determined by the source node on basis of depth data, then we use a weighting scheme to choose the best relay node from the relay forwarding set. The weight calculation is performed on normalized energy, packet delivery probability, and normalized distance of the forwarding node to the known surface sink. The main purpose of developing the GCORP protocol is to provide an effective solution for UWSN routing by improving the network metrics. We perform extensive simulations in NS-3 to validate the outcomes of GCORP protocol and compared them with other routing schemes with respect to packet delivery ratio, end-2-end delay, network lifetime, and energy consumption. The simulation results reveal that the GCORP protocol outperforms the existing approaches.

Data Delivery Protocol Using the Trajectory Information on a Road Map in VANETs

Abstract: Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs) have been widely recognized as one of the most promising technologies to deliver data between vehicles to support various vehicular applications In environments of VANETs with the feature of frequent network dynamics due to high mobility of vehicles, geographic routing is considered as an attractive approach because it can send data to a destination vehicle by using only the location information of vehicles However, mobility of destination vehicles brings about a very challenging issue for data delivery to them because they have frequent location changes due to their continuous movements Fortunately, the trajectory and road map information provided by on-board navigation systems of vehicles can efficiently support data delivery to them Thus, we propose an efficient data delivery protocol that uses the trajectory information of a destination vehicle on a road map in VANETs The proposed protocol first decides an efficient reception point on the trajectory of the destination vehicle by providing an arithmetical model based on a road map information to achieve the cost-minimized data delivery Next, to deliver data to the efficient reception point, the proposed protocol determines an efficient data route by considering both the moving direction of the destination vehicle and the forwarding direction of data Last, the proposed protocol provides a trajectory-based forwarding and a redirection forwarding based on data caching to cope with trajectory changes of the destination vehicle due to its moving speed and direction changes, respectively Simulation results conducted in various environments verify that the proposed protocol achieves more efficient data delivery performances than the existing protocols

W-GPCR Routing Method for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks.

Abstract: The high-speed dynamics of nodes and rapid change of network topology in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) pose significant challenges for the design of routing protocols. Because of the unpredictability of VANETs, selecting the appropriate next-hop relay node, which is related to the performance of the routing protocol, is a difficult task. As an effective solution for VANETs, geographic routing has received extensive attention in recent years. The Greedy Perimeter Coordinator Routing (GPCR) protocol is a widely adopted position-based routing protocol. In this paper, to improve the performance in sparse networks, the local optimum, and the routing loop in the GPCR protocol, the Weighted-GPCR (W-GPCR) protocol is proposed. Firstly, the relationship between vehicle node routing and other parameters, such as the Euclidean distance between node pairs, driving direction, and density, is analyzed. Secondly, the composite parameter weighted model is established and the calculation method is designed for the existing routing problems; the weighted parameter ratio is selected adaptively in different scenarios, so as to obtain the optimal next-hop relay node. In order to verify the performance of the W-GPCR method, the proposed method is compared with existing methods, such as the traditional Geographic Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) protocol and GPCR. Results show that this method is superior in terms of the package delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and average hop count.

Mobility-assisted adaptive routing for intermittently connected FANETs

Abstract: Flying Ad Hoc Network (FANET), a self-configuring network consisting of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), can undertake different kinds of civilian and military tasks. As a particular instance of FANETs, intermittently connected FANETs (IC-FANETs) are characterized by a highly dynamic network topology and intermittent connectivity. Existing routing algorithms have been proposed for FANETs given that the underlying network is well connected, which are not suitable for such network environments. In this paper, we present a geographic routing algorithm called mobility-assisted adaptive routing (MAAR) targeting IC-FANETs. Different from conventional geographic routing protocols exploiting other location services to obtain the location information, MAAR combines routing strategy with location service in order to reduce the packet latency and routing overhead. MAAR updates the information of neighbour nodes dynamically according to nodal mobility and introduces a new metric called IDM to update the positions of other nodes in the network adaptively. In addition, we use a store-carry-and-forward paradigm to handle the technical issues of networks suffering from communication interruptions. When the forwarder node does not have any solution to find an appropriate relay node, mobility is exploited. Simulation results demonstrate that the MAAR scheme performs remarkably in terms of packet delivery ratio, throughput and routing overhead.

AVRM: adaptive void recovery mechanism to reduce void nodes in wireless sensor networks

Abstract: Nowadays, routing in three-dimensional environments is necessary since sensor nodes are organized in those kinds of areas. In this routing mechanism, data packets are routed using geographic routing by constructing a forwarding area. It is assumed that nodes in the network are homogeneous which contain the same energy level and sensing parameter. In this paper, we propose a new method to reduce the void node problem called Adaptive Void Recovery Mechanism, which is implemented by two folds namely position management and forwarding management concepts. Position management is implemented by sensing the surroundings using the base station and location management. Forwarding management is implemented using the assured factor value and cumulative value from the gathered data. The sensor nodes are elected with a minimized congestion packet latency value. Cluster-based routing technique is implemented to improve the network lifetime and network throughput. The proposed method is evaluated by simulation against the related methods like CREEP, EECS, FABC-MACRD in terms of End to End Delay, Residual Energy, Energy Consumption, Routing Overhead, Network Lifetime, and Network Throughput.

Landmark Based Circle Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks

Abstract: Hole problem is a hot issue of Geographic Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks, which is caused by an area without active sensors that blocks the greedy forwarding process, thus long detour path is produced. One of the common solutions is to find a landmark and generate a routing path from the source sensor to the landmark node first, then the landmark resumes routing until to the destination to avoid long detour path. However, this approach results in a constant path prior to routing process, then the forwarding nodes in the path afford routing while other nodes are idle even if they are very close to the pre-setup routing path, thus the busy nodes run out of their energy soon and the hole is larger. In this paper, we present a novel approach, in which circles are created to guide routing thus the idle nodes near the routing path participate in the forwarding. As such, our new mechanism benefits both geographic routing and energy efficiency routing. Simulation results demonstrate that our approach significantly prolongs the lifetime of sensors over peer approaches while almost keeps the same short path as landmark based routing algorithms.

Packet Speed and Cost in Mobile Wireless Delay-Tolerant Networks

Abstract: A mobile wireless delay-tolerant network (DTN) model is proposed and analyzed, in which infinitely many nodes are initially placed on $\mathbb {R}^{2}$ according to a uniform Poisson point process (PPP) and subsequently travel, independently of each other, along trajectories comprised of line segments, changing travel direction at time instances that form a Poisson process, each time selecting a new travel direction from an arbitrary distribution; all nodes maintain constant speed. A single information packet is traveling towards a given direction using both wireless transmissions and sojourns on node buffers, according to a member of a class of utility-based routing rules. For this model, we compute the long-term averages of the speed with which the packet travels towards its destination and the rate with which the wireless transmission cost accumulates. Because of the complexity of the problem, we employ two intuitive, simplifying approximations; simulations show that the approximation error is typically small. Our results provide intuition on the fundamental trade-off that exists in mobile wireless DTNs between the packet speed and the packet delivery cost. The framework developed here is both general and versatile, and can be used as a starting point for further investigation.

Energy Efficient and Multicast Based Greedy Routing for Proactive and Reactive Routing Protocols

Abstract: Due to frequent path break up the lifetime of an adhoc network decreases which leads to the development of energy-efficient routing. Again to improve the speed and scalability issue, geographic routing has prior importance. In this paper, we have addressed the improvisation in QoS for adhoc network on the basis of multicast based greedy forwarding strategy for different routing protocols under various constraints. We have proposed these methods on proactive and reactive protocols to analyze major performance factors like control overhead, energy consumption, throughput, and end to end delay using NS3.

Malicious Route Detection in Vehicular Ad-hoc Network using Geographic Routing with Masked Data

Abstract: Vehicular Ad-hoc Network is the subset of Mobile Ad-hoc Network, Intelligent Transport System and Internet of Things. The acting nodes in VANET are the vehicles on the road at any moment. The anonymity character of these vehicles is opening the opportunity for malicious attacks. Malicious routes increase the data retransmission and hence, the performance of routing will be degraded. The main objective this work is to identify the malicious routes, avoid the data transmission using these routes and increase the packet delivery ratio. In the proposed system called Geographic Routing Protocol with Masked data, two binary- codes called mask and share have been generated to identify the malicious route. The original data is encoded using these binary-codes and routed to the destination using the geographic routing protocol. It is reconstructed at the destination node and based on the encoding technique the malicious routes and malicious nodes are identified. Simulations were conducted with varying speed and varying network size in 20 km2 geographical area. The average packet delivery ratio with varying speed is 0.817 and with varying networksize is 0.733. The proposed geographical routing protocol with masked data technique outperforms than traditional geographic protocol and Detection of Malicious Node protocol, by 0.102 and 0.264 respectively with different speeds and by 0.065 and 0.1616 respectively with different network size.

Enabling Location Privacy Preservation in MANETs Based on Distance, Angle, and Spatial Cloaking

Abstract: Preserving the location privacy of users in Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) is a significant challenge for location information. Most of the conventional Location Privacy Preservation (LPP) methods protect the privacy of the user while sacrificing the capability of retrieval on the server-side, that is, legitimate devices except the user itself cannot retrieve the location in most cases. On the other hand, applications such as geographic routing and location verification require the retrievability of locations on the access point, the base station, or a trusted server. Besides, with the development of networking technology such as caching technology, it is expected that more and more distributed location-based services will be deployed, which results in the risk of leaking location information in the wireless channel. Therefore, preserving location privacy in wireless channels without losing the retrievability of the real location is essential. In this paper, by focusing on the wireless channel, we propose a novel LPP enabled by distance (ranging result), angle, and the idea of spatial cloaking (DSC-LPP) to preserve location privacy in MANETs. DSC-LPP runs without the trusted third party nor the traditional cryptography tools in the line-of-sight environment, and it is suitable for MANETs such as the Internet of Things, even when the communication and computation capabilities of users are limited. Qualitative evaluation indicates that DSC-LPP can reduce the communication overhead when compared with k-anonymity, and the computation overhead of DSC-LPP is limited when compared with conventional cryptography. Meanwhile, the retrievability of DSC-LPP is higher than that of k-anonymity and differential privacy. Simulation results show that with the proper design of spatial divisions and parameters, other legitimate devices in a MANET can correctly retrieve the location of users with a high probability when adopting DSC-LPP.