Showing papers on "Grounded theory published in 2004"

The Analytic Challenge in Interpretive Description

Abstract: The past decade has witnessed remarkable evolution within qualitative health research as scholars have moved beyond initial adherence to the specific methods of phenomenology, grounded theory, and ethnography to develop methods more responsive to the experience-based questions of interest to a practice-based discipline. Interpretive description (Thorne, Reimer Kirkham, & MacDonald-Emes, 1997) is an inductive analytic approaches designed to create ways of understanding clinical phenomena that yield applications implications. In this article, we further develop our understanding of this methodological alternative by elaborating on the objective and mechanisms of its analytic processes and by expanding our consideration of its interpretive products.

Key Concepts in Social Research

Abstract: Action Research Association and Causation Attitude Scales Auto/Biography and Life Histories Bias Case Study Coding Qualitative Data Community Profiles Community Studies Content Analysis Contingency Tables Documentary Methods Ethical Practice Ethnography Ethnomethodology and Conversational Analysis Evaluation Studies Experiments Feminist Research Fieldwork Grounded Theory Group Discussions/Focus Groups Hawthorne Effect Hypothesis Indicators and Operationalisations Internet and Other Searches Internet Polling Interviewing Key Informants Levels of Measurement Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Studies Methods and Methodologies Objectivity Observation Official Statistics Participant Observation Positivism and Realism Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods Questionnaires Reflexivity Reliability Sampling Estimates and Size Sampling Questions of Size Sampling Types Secondary Analysis Social Surveys Telephone and Computer-Assisted Polling Unobstrusive Methods and Triangulation Validity Visual Methods

Remodeling Grounded Theory

Abstract: In diesem Beitrag verdeutliche ich meine Besorgnis uber zahlreiche Umformungen der Grounded Theory (GT), die mit deren Rezeption durch Methodologien der qualitative Datenanalyse (QDA) einhergehen, und hieraus folgende Erosionen. Ich skizziere zunachst einige Beispiele hierfur, um danach die essentiellen Bestandteile der klassischen GT-Methodologie zusammenzufassen. Ich hoffe, dass dieser Beitrag meine Besorgnis uber die wachsende, aber meines Erachtens missverstandene Einvernahme von GT durch QDA-Methodologien veranschaulicht und zugleich als einfuhrender Leitfaden fur Novizen und Novizinnen dient, die daran interessiert sind, die grundlegenden Prinzipien der GT nachzuvollziehen. URN: urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs040245

Approaches to qualitative research : a reader on theory and practice

Abstract: I. DISTINGUISHING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 1: Egon G. Guba and Yvonna S. Lincoln: Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues 2: Joey Sprague and Mary Zimmerman: Overcoming Dualisms: A Feminist Agenda for Sociological Methodology 3: Sandra Harding: How Standpoint Methodology Informs Philosophy of Social Science 4: Mark R. Rank: The Blending of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Understanding Childbearing among Welfare Recipients 5: Deborah L. Tolman and Laura Szalacha: Dimensions of Desire: Bridging Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in a Study of Female Adolescent Sexuality II. INTERACTION AND POSITIONALITY WITHIN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 6: bell hooks: Culture to Culture: Ethnography and Cultural Studies as Critical Intervention 7: Barrie Thorne: "You Still Takin' Notes?" Fieldwork and Problems of Informed Consent 8: Kath Weston: Fieldwork in Lesbian and Gay Communities 9: William L. Miller and Benjamin F. Crabtree: Depth Interviewing 10: Charles A. Gallagher: "White Like Me?" Methods, Meaning, and Manipulation in the Field of White Studies 11: Kathryn Anderson, Susan Armitage, Dana Jack, and Judith Wittner: Beginning Where We Are: Feminist Methodology in Oral History 12: Ingrid Botting: Understanding Domestic Service through Orla History and the Census: The Case of Grand Falls, Newfoundland 13: David L. Morgan: Focus Groups 14: Peter McDermott and Julia Rothenberg: Why Urban Parents Resist Involvement in Their Children's Elementary Education III. UNOBTRUSIVE METHODS, VISUAL RESEARCH, AND CULTURAL STUDIES 15: Lindsay Prior: Following in Foucault's Footsteps: Text and Context in Qualitative Research 16: Jon Prosser and Dona Schwartz: Photographs wihtin the Sociological Research Project 17: Diana Rose: Analyses of Moving Images 18: Chris Mann and Fiona Stewart: Introducing Online Methods 19: Denna Harmon and Scot B. Boeringer: A Content Analysis of Internet-Accessible Written Pornographic Depictions IV. ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, AND THE WRITING OF QUALITATIVE DATA 20: John Van Maanen: An End to Innocence: The Ethnography of Ethnography 21: Norman K. Denzin: The Art and Politics of Interpretation 22: Laural Richardson: Writing: A Method of Inquiry 23: Kathy Charmaz: Grounded Theory 24: Katherine Borland: "That's Not What I Said": Interpretive Conflict in Oral Narrative Research 25: Sharlene Hesse-Biber: Unleashing Frankenstein's Monster? The Use of Computers in Qualitative Research

A grounded theory of the flow experiences of web users

Abstract: This paper presents a grounded theory of the flow experiences of Web users engaged in information-seeking activities. The term flow refers to a state of consciousness that is sometimes experienced by individuals who are deeply involved in an enjoyable activity. The experience is characterized by some common elements: a balance between the challenges of an activity and the skills required to meet those challenges; clear goals and feedback; concentration on the task at hand; a sense of control; a merging of action and awareness; a loss of self-consciousness; a distorted sense of time; and the autotelic experience.The grounded theory research method that was employed in this study is a primarily inductive investigative process in which the researcher formulates a theory about a phenomenon by systematically gathering and analysing relevant data. The aim of this research method is building theory, not testing theory. The data that was gathered for this study primarily consisted of semi-structured in-depth interviews with informants of varying gender, age, educational attainments, occupations and Web experience who could recall experiencing flow while using the Web.

Toward a Grounded Theory of the Psychosocial Competencies and Environmental Conditions Associated with Soccer Success

Abstract: The purposes of this study were to identify and examine psychosocial competencies among elite male adolescent soccer players in order to present a grounded theory of factors associated with soccer success. Participants (N = 40) were 20 Canadian international youth soccer players (M age = 16.8 years), 14 English professional youth soccer players (M age = 16.2 years), and 6 English professional coaches. Using grounded theory methodology (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), data analysis followed several coding procedures geared toward theory development. Four major psychosocial competencies that appear to be central to success in elite youth soccer emerged from the data. The competencies were labeled Discipline (i.e., conforming dedication to the sport and a willingness to sacrifice), Commitment (i.e., strong motives and career planning goals), Resilience (i.e., the ability to use coping strategies to overcome obstacles), and Social Support (i.e., the ability to use emotional, informational, and tangible support). The...

Grounded theory in nursing research: Part 1--Methodology.

Abstract: The epistemological underpinnings of grounded theory make it valuable in the study of nursing, which is premised on an interpersonal process between nurses and clients. Further, it is a useful style of research when there is little prior information about a topic. In this article (Part 1), Terence McCann and Eileen Clark outline the key features of this methodology. In the follow-up article (Part 2, McCann and Clark 2003a), a critique is provided of grounded theory and the two main approaches to this methodology. In the final article in the series (Part 3, McCann and Clark 2003b), the authors illustrate how grounded theory can be applied to nursing research with examples from McCann's Australian study (McCann and Baker 2001) of how community mental health nurses promote wellness with clients who are experiencing an early episode of psychotic illness.

The application of grounded theory and symbolic interactionism

Abstract: This paper describes the methodological and theoretical context and underpinnings of a study that examined community psychiatric nurses' work with family caregivers of older people with depression. The study used grounded theory research methods, with its theoretical foundations drawn from symbolic interactionism. The aims of the study were to describe and conceptualize the processes involved when community nurses work and interact with family caregivers and to develop an explanatory theory of these processes. This paper begins with an explanation of the rationale for using grounded theory as the method of choice, followed by a discussion of the theoretical underpinnings of the study, including a brief summary of the nature and origins of symbolic interactionism. Key premises of symbolic interactionism regarded as central to the study are outlined and an analytical overview of the grounded theory method is provided. The paper concludes with a commentary on some of the issues and debates in the use of grounded theory in nursing research. The main purpose of this paper is to provide a methodical and critical review of symbolic interactionism and grounded theory that can help readers, particularly those who are intending to use grounded theory, better understand the processes involved in applying this method to their research.

Local Instruction Theories as Means of Support for Teachers in Reform Mathematics Education

Abstract: This article focuses on a form of instructional design that is deemed fitting for reform mathematics education. Reform mathematics education requires instruction that helps students in developing their current ways of reasoning into more sophisticated ways of mathematical reasoning. This implies that there has to be ample room for teachers to adjust their instruction to the students' thinking. But, the point of departure is that if justice is to be done to the input of the students and their ideas built on, a well-founded plan is needed. Design research on an instructional sequence on addition and subtraction up to 100 is taken as an instance to elucidate how the theory for realistic mathematics education (RME) can be used to develop a local instruction theory that can function as such a plan. Instead of offering an instructional sequence that "works," the objective of design research is to offer teachers an empirically grounded theory on how a certain set of instructional activities can work. The example...

Rigor in Grounded Theory Research: An Interpretive Perspective on Generating Theory from Qualitative Field Studies

Abstract: This chapter presents a set of principles for the use of Grounded Theory techniques in qualitative field studies. Some issues and controversies relating to rigor in Grounded Theory generation are discussed. These include: inductive theory generation and emergence, how theoretical saturation may be judged, the extent to which coding schemes should be formalized, the objectivistsubjectivist debate, and the assessment of quality and rigor in interpretive research. It is argued that Grounded Theory is often criticized for a lack of rigor because we apply positivist evaluations of rigor to research that derives from an interpretive worldview. Alternative assessments of rigor are suggested, that emphasize reflexivity in the inductive-deductive cycle of substantive theory

Grounded theory: reflections on the emergence vs. forcing debate

Abstract: Aim. The aim of this paper is to compare Glaser's model of theory generation, where theory rises directly and rigorously out of the data, devoid of interpretivism, to Strauss's conceptually descriptive approach that encourages directive questioning and supports an interpretive stance. Background. The discovery of grounded theory (GT) was born out of a merger between Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, the proverbial ‘fathers’ of GT. Since the co-creation of their approach to theory development through research in 1967, these scholars have taken seemingly divergent paths in further developing and evolving the pragmatic use of GT. Discussion. Numerous researchers have used GT as a general method, applying it to both quantitative and qualitative research approaches. In this paper we discuss the stages and strategies of data sampling, collection, coding and analysing used by both Glaser and Strauss. Constant comparative analysis is identified as the primary strategy in the integrated coding and analysing stages of this theorizing method, regardless of the researcher's philosophical or research orientation. We also discuss initial or open coding, advanced coding, memoing, and theoretical sampling, with particular attention to comparing and contrasting the descriptive terms and application strategies that have been suggested by both Glaser and Strauss. Conclusion. The reported distinctions in the approach, method, and general intent of GT reflected in this paper are not easy to comprehend. The two methods reflect different basic philosophical paradigms, and therefore represent distinct approaches to GT. Researchers need to be clear about which philosophy and resulting analysis approach they are using, and the effect that approach will have on the research process and outcomes.

Project Success: A Cultural Framework:

Abstract: This paper presents results of a qualitative study of the adoption of Project Management (PM) practices in an Information Technology (IT) division of a large manufacturing company. Structured inter...

Design research in statistics education : on symbolizing and computer tools

Abstract: The present knowledge society requires statistical literacy-the ability to interpret, critically evaluate, and communicate about statistical information and messages (Gal, 2002). However, research shows that students generally do not gain satisfactory statistical understanding. The research presented in this thesis is a sequel to design research carried out by Cobb, McClain, and Gravemeijer (2003) and aims at contributing to an empirically grounded instruction theory for early statistics education in which educational computer tools are used. Computer software allows users to dynamically interact with large data sets and to explore different representations in ways that are impossible by hand. The computer tools used were the Statistical Minitools (Cobb et al., 1997), which have been designed for middle school students. One important end goal of instruction was that students would gain understanding of sampling and learn to use 'shape' to reason about distributions. In line with the theory of Realistic Mathematics Education, a central tenet was that learning mathematics should be a meaningful activity. The research questions were: 1. How can students with little statistical background develop a notion of distribution? 2. How does the process of symbolizing evolve when students learn to reason about distribution? In the latter question, 'symbolizing' refers to the reflexive process of making symbols and mentally constructing the objects which they represent. The design research consisted of five cycles of three phases: a design phase, a teaching experiment, and a retrospective analysis. Prior to these cycles, historical and didactical phenomenological analyses (Freudenthal, 1991) were carried out as well as exploratory interviews. The historical study gave rise to hypotheses that were partially tested in the teaching experiments carried out in grades 7 and 8 (12 to 14 years old). In the design phase, a so-called hypothetical learning trajectory (Simon, 1995) was formulated, which was tested and revised in the subsequent cycles of design research. The recurring activity of discussing growing samples proved useful to support reasoning about distribution and sampling. For the analyses of students' learning, a method was used similar to the constant comparative method (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). It turned out that students conceived distributions as 'bumps' consisting of a small group of low values, a large group of 'average' values, and a small group of high values. Peirce's semiotics proved useful for analyzing students' process of symbolizing, in particular, his notions of hypostatic abstraction and diagrammatic reasoning. Hypostatic abstraction refers to the transition from a predicate to a new abstract object ("the dots are spread out" to "the spread is large"). Diagrammatic reasoning consists of three steps: making a diagram, experimenting with it, and reflecting on the results. The research shows the importance of letting students make their own diagrams and discussing these. The computer tools seemed most useful during the experimentation phase. Remarkably, the best diagrammatic reasoning occurred only during class discussions without computers around. One recommendation is: only invest in using computer tools if all educational factors such as teaching, end goals, instructional activities, tools, and assessment are tuned to each other.

Small business success factors: the role of education and training

Abstract: Interest in successful small businesses continues to grow, but is influenced by the different ways in which small businesses are categorised and the difficulty of defining “success”. There is a range of criteria associated with success in terms of individual owner characteristics, organisational values and performance measures. However, few researchers have consulted owner/managers about their views on success. This research is instructive in that it used a grounded theory approach to investigate success in small service sector organisations. The impact of education, training, development, prior knowledge and experience on the success of these businesses was investigated. Four substantive categories were developed, but only one category showed clear evidence that education and training had a positive effect on the success of the business. Most businesses relied heavily on prior knowledge and experience. The properties, personal characteristics of the owner‐manager and some hypotheses were also developed for each category.

What can experience add to early medical education? Consensus survey

Abstract: Objective To provide a rationale for integrating experience into early medical education (“early experience”). Design Small group discussions to obtain stakeholders9 views. Grounded theory analysis with respondent, internal, and external validation. Setting Problem based, undergraduate medical curriculum that is not vertically integrated. Participants A purposive sample of 64 students, staff, and curriculum leaders from three university medical schools in the United Kingdom. Results Without early experience, the curriculum was socially isolating and divorced from clinical practice. The abruptness of students9 transition to the clinical environment in year 3 generated positive and negative emotions. The rationale for early experience would be to ease the transition; orientate the curriculum towards the social context of practice; make students more confident to approach patients; motivate them; increase their awareness of themselves and others; strengthen, deepen, and contextualise their theoretical knowledge; teach intellectual skills; strengthen learning of behavioural and social sciences; and teach them about the role of health professionals. Conclusion A rationale for early experience would be to strengthen and deepen cognitively, broaden affectively, contextualise, and integrate medical education. This is partly a process of professional socialisation that should start earlier to avoid an abrupt transition. “Experience” can be defined as “authentic human contact in a social or clinical context that enhances learning of health, illness or disease, and the role of the health professional.”

Meaning of spirituality: implications for nursing practice

Abstract: Background This research outlines some preliminary findings emerging from a grounded theory investigation into the 'meaning of spirituality'. These initial results raise some important questions about the terminology and language that nurses use regarding the term spirituality. It seems that many of the policy directives and statutory guidelines make two major assumptions regarding 'spirituality'. Firstly, patients and nurses are aware and understand the concept, and secondly, patients may require their spiritual needs to be met. These preliminary findings suggest that a dichotomy is emerging between professional assumption and patient expectation regarding the meaning of spirituality. Aim The study had one broad research aim, to gain a deeper insight into how patients, nurses, and people from the major world religions understand the concept of 'spirituality'. Design A qualitative research design was used involving a grounded theory method of inquiry. It was felt that this qualitative method would aid the investigation of this subjective dimension of peoples' existence, enabling existing theoretical constructs and arguments to be tested. Methods The constant comparative method was used throughout the data collection and analysis. Analysis was undertaken at two levels, 'overview analysis' and 'line-by-line analysis'. This enabled the creation of categories and central themes. Results Constant comparative analysis resulted in the formation of several categories and central themes. Two categories presented and discussed in detail are 'definitions of spirituality', and 'diverse perceptions of spirituality'. Conclusion It would seem that there is now an urgent need for nursing to evaluate and perhaps adjust its vision regarding what constitutes spirituality. Such an approach may serve to reduce the gap between policy and public expectation. Relevance to clinical practice It seems that there may be no 'precise' terminology associated with the language used to define spirituality, raising possible implications for nursing practice and nurse education.

Identifying paradox: A grounded theory of leadership in overcoming resistance to change

Abstract: The full grounded theory method was used in the present study to investigate nursing leadership in a New Zealand hospital setting. One finding that emerged clearly from the research was the important role played by organizational politics in both facilitating the process of leadership and in confounding it. Data were collected over a two-year period. The range of data sources included nonparticipant observation, informal/unstructured and formal/semistructured interviews, document analysis, and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Data triangulation within the grounded theory method is a major contribution of this study. Nurse leaders displayed high levels of transformational leadership according to the questionnaire data. However, qualitative analysis of the data suggested that other factors were working to prevent nurse leaders from maximizing organizational change outcomes. Two near-core categories partially explained why transformational nurse leaders were not realizing their leadership potential. One near-core category was the process of repressing leadership, the other was multiple realities. The highest level of abstraction of the data led to the emergence of the substantive basic social process of identifying paradox. Identifying paradox was conceptually very close to the definition of politics in organizational leadership which is the ‘‘constructive management of shared meaning.’’ This core category explained the social process by which the staff either legitimize or reconcile paradoxical understandings created from the multiple realities of the three subcultures working in the hospital setting. If paradoxes are identified and reconciled, and multiple realities converge, organizational change efforts are more likely to be accepted by the staff because the change is in line with their reality. Conversely, if paradoxes are not identified and/or legitimized, multiple realities diverge and organizational change efforts are less likely to be accepted by the staff. Findings are interpreted from the political perspective.

Understanding Gay Identity Development Within the College Environment

Abstract: Using grounded theory methodology, the experiences of 11 self-identified gay male college studentswere explored to understand how the environment contributed to the exploration and development of a gay identity. One central category (finding empowerment) and 5 integrative categories (self-acceptance, disclosure to others, environmental influences, individual factors, and exploring multiple identities) emerged from the research. Findings suggested that one's sexual identity is complexly integrated and often at odds with other aspects of the individual's identity.

Learning to reason about distribution

Abstract: The purpose of this chapter is to explore how informal reasoning about distribution can be developed in a technological learning environment. The development of reasoning about distribution in seventh-grade classes is described in three stages as students reason about different representations. It is shown how specially designed software tools, students’ created graphs, and prediction tasks supported the learning of different aspects of distribution. In this process, several students came to reason about the shape of a distribution using the term bump along with statistical notions such as outliers and sample size. This type of research, referred to as “design research,” was inspired by that of Cobb, Gravemeijer, McClain, and colleagues (see Chapter 16). After exploratory interviews and a small field test, we conducted teaching experiments of 12 to 15 lessons in 4 seventh-grade classes in the Netherlands. The design research cycles consisted of three main phases: design of instructional materials, classroom-based teaching experiments, and retrospective analyses. For the retrospective analysis of the data, we used a constant comparative method similar to the methods of Glaser and Strauss (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) and Cobb and Whitenack (1996) to continually generate and test conjectures about students’ learning processes.

Clinical students' initial reports of the educational climate in a single medical school.

Abstract: Introduction The quality of the educational environment has frequently been identified as crucial to effective learning. Aspects of the clinical context differ from those of other higher education environments. This study explored the educational climate (the environment perceived by students) at a single medical school. The article focuses on the perceptions of students in the early stages of their clinical course. Methods A longitudinal study of the school was carried out over a 5-year period from 1995 to 2000, using ethnographic methods. Data collection methods included participant observation, in-depth interviews, focus groups, and collection of written documentation. Analysis was conducted using a grounded theory approach. Results At the beginning of their clinical course, students were motivated by the patient contact and enjoyed clinical teaching. However, they also felt daunted because the earlier years of the course had not prepared them in terms of the knowledge or style of learning required. Aspects of the hospital environment were perceived as being unhelpful to learning, for example, doctors' frequent late arrival for, or cancellation of, teaching. Students often perceived that they were ‘in the way’, and that their individuality was not valued. Maturity, gender and ethnicity impacted on students' perceptions and on their career aspirations and expectations. Discussion Students' transition to the hospital environment was difficult. This may become less of an issue as medical curricula become more integrated. Specific strategies to induct students into the hospital, and increased staff awareness of their needs, could also help. Ensuring an inclusive atmosphere may be more difficult, requiring cultural change.

Grounded theory in nursing research: Part 2--Critique.

Abstract: In the first article in this series (McCann and Clark 2003), the methodological characteristics of grounded theory were examined. In this, the second article on grounded theory, Terence McCann and Eileen Clark critique the methodology. They then summarise the main differences between Glaser's approach and Strauss and Corbin's approach to grounded theory.

Understanding working-class 'drop-out' from higher education through a sociocultural lens: Cultural narratives and local contexts

Abstract: The 'drop-out' of working-class students from universities has been identified as one of the most pressing issues for the higher education (HE) sector in the United Kingdom. This article draws on the initial findings of a major research project that explores the meanings and implications of such withdrawal from HE amongst young working-class people. The article argues that drop-out should be seen not just as an educational problem, but also as a manifestation of sociocultural change. To understand drop-out we need to look beyond student support needs or institutional barriers to cultural narratives and local contexts. This enables us to use a sociological frame to understand the educational question, and employ the educational data to contribute to sociological debates on class. The article analyses 'drop-out' as a self-fulfilling cultural narrative that is increasingly connoted as working class, as well as being a consequence of the material exigencies of working-class circumstances. It illustrates how c...

Mormon Clients’ Experiences of Conversion Therapy The Need for a New Treatment Approach

Abstract: Perspectives were gathered of 50 Mormon individuals who had undergone counseling to change their sexual orientation. The data were analyzed using the constant comparative method and participant verification, thereby developing a grounded theory. A model emerged that depicted participants’ intrapersonal and interpersonal motivations for seeking conversion or “reparative” therapy, their perceived benefits and harms of such interventions, and the factors that facilitated self-acceptance and consolidation of a positive self-identity. Based on these descriptions, this study provides the foundation for a broader-based treatment approach (besides one focused solely on changing sexual orientation or adopting a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity), which is designed to produce individualized congruent solutions for religiously conflicted, same-sex-attracted clients.

A qualitative study of the consequences of 'hidden dysfunctions' one year after a mild stroke in persons <75 years.

Abstract: Background and purpose: Increased mental fatiguability, concentration and memory difficulties, irritability, emotional instability, impaired stress tolerance, and sound and light sensitivity, in this paper operationalized through the astheno-emotional syndrome (AE syndrome) are known consequences of stroke. The aim of this study was to explore how persons with AE syndrome, one year after a mild stroke, experienced the consequences of the syndrome in everyday life. Method: A qualitative design was used. Fifteen respondents were chosen by strategic sampling and interviewed. The analysis was done using a grounded theory method. Results: Data analysis yielded harmed/threatened self as the core category with four main categories covering the dimensions of: hidden-apparent dysfunction, predictability-unpredictability, independence-dependence and active life-passive life. The model grounded in data shows the structural properties and the processes that verify the dynamics and interactions of the everyday life co...

Emotions and classroom talk: Toward a model of the role of affect in students' experiences of classroom discussions

Abstract: To understand the role of affect in classroom discussion, the authors asked 16 students taking a 3-hr seminar to participate in a semester-long grounded theory inquiry. Coding of classroom observations, stimulated recall interviews, and self-ratings from each class meeting resulted in a model of affect as a catalyst in students' experience of classroom discussion, both moment by moment and cumulatively across the semester. Influenced by personal and contextual factors, four main actions--attending, listening, talking, and tuning out--constituted the experience of discussion, with affect playing a key role. The consequences of this dynamic system of affect, cognition, and action in discussion were that students learned content, became more aware of social aspects, experienced different affective states, and changed their motivation to talk in future discussions.

Girls’ Family Labor in Low-Income Households: A Decade of Qualitative Research

Abstract: This article analyzes a decade of qualitative research to identify and explore an overlooked survival strategy used in low-income families: children's family labor Defined as physical duties, caregiving, and household management responsibilities, children's-most often girls'-family labor is posited as a critical source of support where low wages and absent adult caregivers leave children to take over essential, complex, and time-consuming family demands We argue that there are lost opportunities when children are detoured from childhood to do family labor and that an intergenerational transfer of poverty is associated with those losses Key Words: caregiving, child care, children, girls, low-income, work-family Low-income working families have long devised nonmonetary strategies to manage daily life (Edin & Lein, 1997; Furstenberg, Cook, Eccles, Elder, & Sameroff, 1999; Stack, 1974) in large part because they cannot afford market alternatives One of these strategies is shared caregiving, or reciprocity and kin care, but recent research suggests that relative care may be less available than has been presumed (Gerstel & Gallagher, 1994; Roschelle, 1997a) Work and family scholarship in general has focused on the strategies used by middle-class and dual-career families, with less research on low-income and single-mother families (Dodson & Bravo, 2003; Heymann, 2000) Although researchers have examined children's household work, largely in the context of whether doing chores benefits children (Goodnow, 1988), the use of children to provide family labor-physical duties, caregiving, and domestic management responsibilities critical to family survival-is absent from most work and family scholarship A review of recent scholarship about low-income working families reveals that parents face formidable challenges taking care of children and households while meeting the demands of low-wage jobs (Munger, 2002) Moreover, the wages of many underskilled workers are insufficient to support a family (Bernstein, Brocht, & Spade-Aguilar, 2000) Although an increase in publicly funded child care has accompanied the loss of welfare, government-subsidized child care serves a small percentage of all eligible families (Mezey, Schumacher, Greenberg, Lombardi, & Hutchins, 2002) This article examines children's family labor, arguing that low earnings and parental absence due to employment push significant care and household work onto children-particularly girls-as a family coping or survival strategy Moreover, our data show that in low-income America, when children focus on family labor, there is an opportunity cost-a loss of attention to their own development-contributing to an intergenerational cycle of poverty and near poverty, largely from mother to daughter Using a grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), the first author identified the theme of low-income children's family work while conducting several studies in the 1990s in which children's family labor was noteworthy in its complexity, importance to respondents, and prevalence Subsequently, between 1998 and 2002, researchers conducted additional research about children's nonmonetary contributions to family life This article describes types of children's family labor that emerged repeatedly during these studies We use rich, triangulated qualitative data to examine respondents' understanding of children's work for family as economic necessity but also in the context of gender and race or ethnic cultural obligations We conclude that low-income children commonly perform family labor and thus spend less time on school and extracurricular activities, resulting in profound opportunity costs and foregone and forgotten dreams Our methodological experience cautions us that low-income parents are often reluctant to divulge details about their family patterns, maintaining oblique habits of survival in low-wage America …