Showing papers on "Head (linguistics) published in 2002"

Subject-Verb Agreement Errors in French and English: The Role of Syntactic Hierarchy.

Abstract: We report two parallel experiments conducted in French and in English in which we induced subject-verb agreement errors to explore the role of syntactic structure during sentence production. Previous studies have shown that attraction errors (i.e., a tendency of the verb to agree with an immediately preceding noun instead of with the subject of the sentence) occur when a preverbal local noun disagrees in number with the subject head noun. The attraction effect was accounted for either by the proximity of the local noun to the verb in the linearised sentence (linear distance hypothesis) or by the processing simultaneity of the head and local nouns situated in the same clause (clause packaging hypothesis). In the current experiments, speakers were asked to complete complex sentential preambles. Contrary to the predictions of these two hypotheses, we found that agreement errors were more frequent following an intermediate modifier (e.g., *The threat-S to the presidents-P of the company-S ARE serious) than an...

Visual prosody: facial movements accompanying speech

Abstract: As we articulate speech, we usually move the head and exhibit various facial expressions. This visual aspect of speech aids understanding and helps communicating additional information, such as the speaker's mood. We analyze quantitatively head and facial movements that accompany speech and investigate how they relate to the text's prosodic structure. We recorded several hours of speech and measured the locations of the speakers' main facial features as well as their head poses. The text was evaluated with a prosody prediction tool, identifying phrase boundaries and pitch accents. Characteristic for most speakers are simple motion patterns that are repeatedly applied in synchrony with the main prosodic events. Direction and strength of head movements vary widely from one speaker to another, yet their timing is typically well synchronized with the spoken text. Understanding quantitatively the correlations between head movements and spoken text is important for synthesizing photo-realistic talking heads. Talking heads appear much more engaging when they exhibit realistic motion patterns.

The Noun Phrase

Abstract: 1. Preliminaries 2. Nominal Subcategories: Seinsarten 3. Nouns: Real and Apparent Nominal Subclasses 4. Qualifying Modifiers in the Noun Phrase 5. Quantifying Modifiers in the Noun Phrase 6. Localizing Modifiers in the Noun Phrase 7. The Underlying Structure of Noun Phrases 8. Ordering Principles, Domain Integrity, and Discontinuity 9. Greenbergian Word Order Correlations and the Principle of Head Proximity 10. The Principle of Scope 11. Epilogue Further Reading

Nouns and Noun Phrases

Abstract: Nouns The general term ‘noun’ is applied to a grammatically distinct word class in a language having the following properties: (a) It contains amongst its most central members those words that denote persons or concrete objects. (b) Its members head phrases – noun phrases – which characteristically function as subject or object in clause structure and refer to the participants in the situation described in the clause, to the actor, patient, recipient, and so on. (c) It is the class to which the categories of number, gender and case have their primary application in languages which have these grammatical categories. The ‘primary’ application of these categories is to be distinguished from their ‘secondary’ application, as when they are attributable to a rule of agreement. Number in English, for example, applies both to nouns and (in combination with person) to verbs, so that we may contrast, say, The dog bites and The dogs bite . But it applies here primarily to dog and secondarily to bite because the verb takes its (person–) number property from the subject – and the reason we put it this way rather than the other way round is that the semantic distinction is a matter of how many dogs are involved, not how many acts of biting.

The disambiguation of nominalizations

Abstract: This article addresses the interpretation of nominalizations, a particular class of compound nouns whose head noun is derived from a verb and whose modifier is interpreted as an argument of this verb. Any attempt to automatically interpret nominalizations needs to take into account: (a) the selectional constraints imposed by the nominalized compound head, (b) the fact that the relation of the modifier and the head noun can be ambiguous, and (c) the fact that these constraints can be easily overridden by contextual or pragmatic factors. The interpretation of nominalizations poses a further challenge for probabilistic approaches since the argument relations between a head and its modifier are not readily available in the corpus. Even an approximation that maps the compound head to its underlying verb provides insufficient evidence. We present an approach that treats the interpretation task as a disambiguation problem and show how we can "re-create" the missing distributional evidence by exploiting partial parsing, smoothing techniques, and contextual information. We combine these distinct information sources using Ripper, a system that learns sets of rules from data, and achieve an accuracy of 86.1% (over a baseline of 61.5%) on the British National Corpus.

Functional structure in DP and IP

Abstract: This edited volume presents the first results of a long term research project, funded by the Italian Government, which aims at mapping out the fine functional structure of sentences, nominal phrases, and other major phrases making up sentences. Structural representations are seen to arise from the combinations of two kinds syntactic atoms: lexical elements (nouns, verbs, and adjectives) and functional elements (determiners, complementizers and various kinds of inflections), the first expressing the descriptive content, the second providing the functional architecture of syntactic structures. This study focuses on the latter, exploring in particular the functional structure of dps (determiner phrases, noun phrases having a determiner as its head: thus, the old man would be a determiner phrase headed by the, headed in turn by man, as its dependent) and ips(inflection phrases, another syntactic category to describe clauses without complement clauses: e.g. she married him would be an ip without the complementizer since). These papers also examine the functional structure of sentences in both verbal and signed languages, uncovering a rich hierarchy of functional projections hosting different classes a adjectival phrases. one of the major collective research projects that has emerged from contemporary research in generative grammar, this volume is highly rigorous empirically and theoretically and provides linguists with a very important body of analysis that is likely to influence future research.

The Relation between Gender and Number Agreement Processing

Abstract: We report an experiment in which we test the relationship between gender and number in subject-predicate agreement. We also test the link between two different number-agreement relations—subject-verb and subject-predicative adjective. Participants saw first an unmarked adjective and then a sentence fragment consisting of a complex subject with a head noun and a modifier containing a second noun and were asked to make a whole sentence using the adjective with the proper gender and number markings. The gender of the subject head and the gender and number of the attractor noun were manipulated. Number errors in the verb and number and gender errors in the predicative adjective were measured. The results suggest gender agreement is computed independently of number agreement. In contrast, subject-verb number agreement and subject-predicative adjective number agreement are a unitary process. The implications for psycholinguistic and linguistic theories of gender and number are discussed.

The Syntactic Structure of French Auxiliaries

Abstract: While a consensus has been reached about the monoclausality of the Romance construction with an auxiliary verb and its verbal complement, questions remain about its syntactic structure. We focus here on French auxiliaries - the past tense auxiliaries (avoir and etre), and the passive auxiliary (etre) - which are unique in French in contributing only tense and aspect and triggering obligatory clitic climbing. Three syntactic structures have been proposed for such auxiliaries: a VP complement analysis, a verbal complex analysis, and a 'flat' VP analysis. We show here, working within a HEAD-DRIVEN PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR framework and basing our arguments on classical constituency tests, bounded dependencies, and lesser-known properties of a subset of manner adverbs, that the flat-structure analysis is to be preferred for tense auxiliaries, which take as their complements the bare participle as well as the complements subcategorized by this participle and 'inherited' from it. In contrast, the passive auxiliary, which we identify with the copula, has a predicative complement with different realizations: either an ordinary phrase, 'saturated' for its complements, or a 'partial' complement, where the predicative head lets some or all of its complements be inherited by the auxiliary. Our analysis allows for a solution to the well-known problem of auxiliary selection, which, we argue, should not be taken as an indicator of syntactic structure but is best handled via lexical constraints.

Automatic detection of relevant head gestures in American Sign Language communication

Abstract: An automated system for detection of head movements is described The goal is to label relevant head gestures in video of American Sign Language (ASL) communication. In the system, a 3D head tracker recovers head rotation and translation parameters from monocular video. Relevant head gestures are then detected by analyzing the length and frequency of the motion signal's peaks and valleys. Each parameter is analyzed independently, due to the fact that a number of relevant head movements in ASL are associated with major changes around one rotational axis. No explicit training of the system is necessary Currently, the system can detect "head shakes." In experimental evaluation, classification performance is compared against ground-truth labels obtained from ASL linguists. Initial results are promising, as the system matches the linguists' labels in a significant number of cases.

Predicting the components of German nominal compounds

Abstract: Word prediction systems (such as those embedded in most current augmentative and alternative communication systems) aim to predict what a user wants to type next on the basis of corpus-extracted n-gram counts. Good performance of such a system depends crucially on the size and quality of the underlying lexicon. Compounding is a common cross-linguistic way to form complex words. In German as in some other languages, compounds are commonly written as single orthographic strings. Because compounding is a very productive process, this leads to a considerable amount of orthographic words that cannot, even in principle, be listed in a lexicon. We present a solution to this problem based on the idea that compounds should not be predicted as units, but as the concatenation of their components. In particular, we designed a word prediction system in which the prediction of German two-element nominal compounds (by far the most common compound type in German) is split into the prediction of the modifier (left element) and the prediction of the head (right element). Both components are predicted on the basis of uni- and bigram statistics collected treating modifiers and heads as independent units, and on the basis of the type frequency of nouns in head and modifier context in the training corpus. We show that our system brings a dramatic improvement in keystroke saving rate over a word prediction scheme in which compounds are treated as units. In particular, our results indicate that the type frequency of nouns in head/modifier context in the training corpus is a very good predictor of which nouns will occur in head/modifier context in new text.

Case inflection and nominal head marking in Dinka

Abstract: Dinka, a largely monosyllabic Western Nilotic language, exhibits two types of case inflection. Firstly, there are case forms that indicate the grammatical relation of a noun phrase to the verb. These cases include the absolutive, which is morphologically unmarked, the oblique, and two locatives. The oblique is the case of, among others, a postverbal subject, while an object and a preverbal subject have the absolutive case. Secondly, there are case forms that indicate the relation between the head and the modifier in a complex noun phrase. A modifier follows the head, and Dinka is head-marking in the sense that a noun takes a special (case ) form when modified by, for instance, a demonstrative, a possessor noun phrase or a relative clause, a form that I label construct state. There are two different construct states, and the choice between them depends on the type of the modifier. Moreover, a possessor noun phrase has the oblique case. Case inflection is almost exclusively root-internal, i.e. non-linear, the inflections being expressed by alternations in vowel length, vowel quality, tone, and the root-final consonant. The same means are used in number inflection. Nevertheless, nouns have a clearly stratified morphology.

Speaker mounting structure of head rest in vehicle

Abstract: A speaker mounting structure is provided in a head rest at an upper portion of a seat. A pair of left and right speakers are mounted to the head rest, which has a through-bore at a central portion so the speakers only occupy a lower half of the through-bore.

Remarks on Marking

Abstract: This paper calls for a reexamination of the Marking Theory of HPSG, which in its standard form involves a considerable amount of dedicated formal machinery, but which proves to be inapplicable for most types of grammatical marking. As an alternative, it is demonstrated that head-marker phrases can be reanalyzed as head-complement structures, with the marking element treated as the syntactic head. This approach allows the elimination of all markingspecific formal apparatus, with the exception of the attribute MARKING, which percolates as an ordinary HEAD feature, and whose function is significantly expanded. The proposed approach allows marking elements to be related to other lexical heads (prepositions, in particular), and marking constructions are better integrated in the grammar, rather than being grouped into an exceptional class of head-marker phrases.

A database of Head-Related Transfer Functions in whole directions on upper hemisphere

Abstract: Shouichi Takane, Daisuke Arai, Tohru Miyajima, Kanji Watanabe, Yôiti Suzuki and Toshio Sone Faculty of Systems Science and Technology, Akita Prefectural University, 84–4 Ebinokuchi, Tsuchiya, Honjo, 015–0055 Japan Research Institute of Electrical Communication and Graduate School of Information Science, Tohoku University, 2–1–1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980–8577 Japan Institute of Technology, Shimizu Corporation, 3–4–17 Etchujima, Koto-ku, Tokyo, 135–8530 Japan Currently in Mitsubishi Electric Corporation

Head movements and negation in Greek Sign Language

Abstract: This paper is part of a study examining how negation is marked in Greek Sign Language (GSL). Head movements which are reported to mark negation in other sign languages have been examined to see if they are also used in GSL along with negation sings and signs with incorporated negation. Of particular interest is the analysis of the backward tilt of the head which is distinct for marking negation in GSL.

Proxy Categories in Phrase Structure Theory and the Chinese VP

Abstract: The present article discusses in detail the so-called verb-copying construction in Mandarin Chinese. Applying Nash & Rouveret's (1997, 2002) theory of proxy categories, we obtain an analysis which is completely different from the standard one (cf. Huang 1982) and which, as a consequence, proposes a new account of aspect in Chinese. The baconstruction is re-examined as well and ba is shown to be a higher (verbal) head rather than a preposition.

Breaking open the head: a psychodelic journey into the heart of contemporary shamonism.

Abstract: New updated! The latest book from a very famous author finally comes out. Book of breaking open the head a psychedelic journey into the heart of contemporary shamanism, as an amazing reference becomes what you need to get. What's for is this book? Are you still thinking for what the book is? Well, this is what you probably will get. You should have made proper choices for your better life. Book, as a source that may involve the facts, opinion, literature, religion, and many others are the great friends to join with.

Bare resultatives

Abstract: This paper presents an empirical argument against the view that the subject-predicate relation is mediated in syntax by a designated functional head. In particular, it is argued that a theory that allows this relation to be mediated by any head makes available an analysis of verb-resultative combinations as complex predicates. As opposed to its rivals, this analysis derives the following characteristics: (i) Resultative and verb jointly express a single event involving direct causation. (ii) Resultatives form a constituent with the verb. (iii) The head of a resultative complex predicate cannot itself be complex, but the nonhead can. (iv) All thematic information in the head can contribute to the θ-grid of a complex predicate; the nonhead can only contribute the thematic information associated with its external θ-role. (v) The head of a resultative complex predicate expresses an event while the nonhead expresses a resulting state or interrelation. (vi) Resultatives are object-oriented. (vii) Depending on the thematic properties of the head, the object (or derived subject) of a resultative complex predicate must, can, or cannot be interpreted as the internal argument of the verb. (viii) A resultative complex predicate cannot head a double object construction. The analysis extends to expressions like consider intelligent and directional complex predicates headed by verbs of motion.

Semantic Influence on Linkers in Dutch Noun-Noun Compounds

Abstract: As in many other languages, the constituents of nominal compounds in Dutch are often separated by a linking element. This study investigates to what extent form and semantic properties of the right constituents in Dutch compounds affect the choice of the linker. Using both lexical statistics and experimentation, we show that the left and right constituent families affect the choice of the linker independently of the semantic categories of the left and right constituents themselves. We also show that the choice of the linker is co-determined by the animacy and concreteness of the left constituent. No role for the semantic class of the head constituent was observed in the experiment. Apparently, linkers are non-canonical suffixes in the sense that their occurrence is codetermined by the form properties of the constituent to their right.

Investigating creative language: People’s choice of words in the production of novel noun-noun compounds

Abstract: Investigating Creative Language: People’s Choice of Words in the Production of Novel Noun-Noun Compounds Fintan Costello (fintan@compapp.dcu.ie) School of Computer Applications, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland. Abstract The production of novel noun-noun compounds is a prime example of everyday linguistic creativity. What cognitive processes guide people’s choice of words when they make up a new noun-noun compound? An experiment examined people’s production of noun-noun compounds as names for novel objects. The results showed that people’s choice of words in these novel compounds was influenced by the diagnosticity of properties in those objects. By contrast, people’s choice of words did not seem to be influenced by the communicative precision of the resulting compounds. These results suggest that, in constructing novel compounds, people are guided by conceptual representation rather than communicative task. Introduction The production of noun-noun compounds is a prime example of everyday linguistic creativity. Compounds such as soccer mom (a middle-class suburban mother) or alpha geek (the person in a workplace who knows most about computers) convey a lot of information in a concise and inventive way. How do people produce novel compounds such as these? What cognitive processes guide people’s choice of words when they make up a new noun-noun compound? There has been much recent research on the cognitive processes of conceptual combination, which allow people to understand novel noun- noun compounds by combining their constituent words in meaningful ways (Costello & Keane, 2000, 2001; Gagne & Shoben, 1997; Hampton, 1987; Murphy, 1988; Wisniewski & Gentner, 1991). There has also been much work on the situations in which noun-noun compound production occurs, especially in child language (asking whether children create compounds to fill gaps in their lexicon, to mark contrasts, or to allow more precise communication; see Clark, 1987, Clark & Berman, 1984, Windsor, 1993). However, there has been little research on the specific cognitive processes involved in people's creation of novel noun-noun compounds. This paper attempts to address this gap. This paper describes an experiment examining people's choice of words in novel noun-noun compounds. In this experiment participants are given a description of a novel object and asked to make up a noun-noun compound as a name for that object. The experiment examined the influence of property diagnosticity on people's compound production. Diagnostic properties for a concept are those which serve to identify members of that concept: a diagnostic property is one that most members of a concept have, but most non-members do not have. Previous research has shown that property diagnosticity is important in people's interpretation of compound phrases (Costello & Keane, 2001). In the current experiment, the novel object descriptions presented to participants are controlled for diagnosticity: some containing diagnostic properties for a given concept, others containing non-diagnostic properties. If diagnosticity also plays a role in compound production, then there should be a relationship between the diagnosticity of properties in a novel object description, and people's choice of words when producing compound names for that object. The current experiment uses materials derived from Costello & Keane's (2001) study of diagnosticity in compound phrase interpretation. The first part of this paper describes this earlier study. The second part describes the current experiment examining the production of novel compounds. To foreshadow the results, this experiment found that diagnosticity was an accurate predictor of compound production: in the experiment the more diagnostic the property in an object description was for a given word, the more likely that word was to be used in generating a compound to name that object. An alternative factor, that of communicative precision (Clark, 1987, 1990), was not a reliable predictor of compound production. The final part of the paper links these findings to other research on concept combination and compound production. Diagnosticity in the Interpretation of Noun-Noun Compounds How are people able to understand and grasp the meaning of a noun-noun compound which they have never seen before? When confronted with a novel noun-noun compound, people interpret that compound by combining the compound's modifier concept (the first word in the compound) with the compound's head concept (the second word). People can combine these two parts in a variety of different ways. Three main combination types have been recognised: conjunctive, relational, and property-transfer interpretations (Hampton, 1987; Murphy, 1988; Wisniewski & Gentner, 1991). In conjunctive interpretations people produce a combined concept that is an instance of both concepts being combined (e.g., a pet bird is a bird which is also a pet ). In relational interpretations people assert a relation between the two concepts being combined ( an apartment dog is a small dog which lives in city apartments ). In property-transfer interpretations people create a new combined concept by transferring a property from the modifier concept to the head. For example, the compound elephant pig might be interpreted as an elephant pig is a pig that has tusks : the transfer of a property from the modifier concept ( elephant ) to the head concept ( pig ). These property-transfer combinations have been the focus of much recent research (Costello & Keane, 2001; Gagne, 2000; Wisniewski & Love, 1998). This focus in this paper is on property-transfer combinations. Costello & Keane (2001) describe an experiment examining people's interpretation of property-transfer combinations. The

Interlanguage Syntax of Arabic-Speaking Learners of English: The Noun Phrase.

Abstract: This study examined the interlanguage syntax of Arabic speaking learners of English in the area of the noun phrase, focusing on the closed system elements that can occur before or after the noun head, the noun head and pronouns in line with Quirk and Greenbaum's (1977) treatment of the noun phrase. Participants were 25 Arabic speaking English language learners from seven Arab countries attending an intensive English program at the University of Texas Austin. The first 500 words of each student's oral production were analyzed, and a typology of errors based on a pilot project was established. Results indicated that noun phrase errors were second to verb phrase errors, forming 32.8 percent of the total number of errors in the sample. The most frequent noun phrase errors were in the use of articles, particularly the omission of the indefinite article in obligatory contexts, the use of "the" redundantly, omission of the article "the," and redundant use of the articles "a" and "an." Ordinals were used interchangeably, and quantifiers were confused as to their use with count/noncount nouns. Arab learners from different dialect backgrounds had different problems. Errors made by Arab learners of English were very similar to errors made by learners from other language backgrounds. (Contains 47 references.) (SM) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. Interlanguage Syntax of Arabic-Speaking Learners of English: The Noun Phrase Muhammad Raji Zughoul Department of English, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The noun phrase has been the subject of a large number of research projects in thesis and dissertation form in Arab and Western universities. Most of these studies focused on contrast between an aspect of English on one hand and a variety of Arabic (regional, or dialectal) on the other. Reference can be made to Abu-Seif (1967) on nominals in English and Cairene Arabic; Hassani (1967) on the classification of the noun in both English and Arabic; Qafisheh (1968) on pre-nominal modifiers; Al-Safi (1972) on concord; El-derwi (1967) on number; Yassin (1977) on the genitive; Mehdi (1981) and Zughoul (1979) on prepositions; El-Sheikh (1963) on pronouns; Bulos (1960), Tadros (1979) and Toshie (1983) on relatives. Several other studies of more general nature along the lines of Error Analysis included sections on the noun phrase. These include Samhoury (1966) on Syrian students; Yacoub (1972) and AlAni (1979) on Iraqi learners of English; Tadros (1966), El-Hibr (1976) and Kambal (1980) on Sudanese learners; El-Ezabi (1967), Rouchdy (1970), Emam (1972) and Mattar (1978) on Egyptain learners; Kharma (1981) and Al-Qadi (1982) on Kuwaiti stdents; Abu-Shanab (1978), Miller (1981), Hanania (1974) and Hanania & Gradmann (1977) on Saudi learners; Meziani (1984) on Moroccan learners; Mukattash (1978), Al-Musa (1974), Al-Qasim (1983) and Shaheen (1989) on Jordanian learners. Of more general nature which included students from more than one Arab country were those of The Defense Language Institute (DLI 1969), Willcott (1972, 1978) and Scott & Tucker (1974), Kharma and Hajjaj (1989) and Aziz (1996). Though contradictory on some aspects, the findings of most of these studies has been strikingly similar. This study is error analytic and comprehensive in the scope of its coverage and data base. PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY Mulryarn _21.41.011.1 TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) 1 BEST COPY AVAILABLE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) 70This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it. Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality. Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY The objective of this paper is to report the findings of a study of the interlanguage syntax of Arabicspeaking learners of English in the area of the noun phrase. More particularly, this study will be concerned with the closed system elements that can occur before or after the noun head, the noun head and pronouns in line with Quirk and Greenbaum (1977) treatment of the noun phrase. The subjects of the study were twenty five Arabic speaking learners of English from seven different Arab countries (Algeria 2, Lybia 5, Egypt 5, Jordan 3, Lebanon 2, Saudi Arabia 7, Bahrain 1). They were attending the Intensive English Program of the University of Texas at Austin. The first 500 words of the oral production of each of the 25 subjects -a body of about 12,500 words -was selected for description, analysis, quantification and explanation of errors. A typology of errors based on a pilot project was established, part of which deals with the noun phrase. FINDINGS The count of errors in the corpus in general indicates that noun phrase errors are second to verb phrase errors. They form 32.8% of the total number of errors in the sample. Table 1 is a summary of the errors in the noun phrase. Table 1 Summary of Noun Phrase Errors NP % Tota Determiners Articles 161 38.0 12.5 Omission of a, an 076 47.2 17.9 Use of THE for 0 article 043 26.7 10.1 Use of 0 for THE 018 11.1 04.2 Use of a, an for THE 013 08.0 03.0 Substitution 011 06.8 02.6 Other determiners 010 02.3 00.7 Predeterminers 002 00.4 00.1 Postdeterminers Ordinals 014 03.3 01.0 Quantifiers 017 04.0 01.3 204 48.2 15.8

Body-Part Nouns as a Source of Reflexives: Towards a Grammaticalization Account of Georgian tav- 'Head'

Abstract: It is well-known that nouns denoting the human body or parts of it are an important source of polysemy in the languages of the world. One such example, the development of Georgian tav'head' into a reflexive anaphor, is the object of the present paper. After a typological overview of reflexivization strategies in Georgian, we present an account, both synchronic and diachronic, of the rise of various tavbased strategies in grammaticalization terms. We then investigate motivations for the use of the fairly grammaticalized POSS + tavstrategy in a peculiarity of Georgian syntax called Object Camouflage, and finally discuss an intensifier reading of reflexives in subject function, suggesting a potential counterexample to the allegedly unidirectional development from intensifiers to reflexives.

SWAHILI Amba-LESS RELATIVES WITHOUT HEAD MOVEMENT

Abstract: Recent proposals have assumed that syntactic representations are constrained by some type of Linear Correspondence Axiom (LCA), as version of which first appeared in Kayne (1994). One consequence of this assumption is the elimination of right-adjunction of one overt element onto another in the syntax, which in some cases can force a remnant movement analysis. This paper shows that Swahili amba-less relatives, and probably even verb forms in simple matrix clauses, are one such case. Several types of independent evidence are also examined to the effect that these verbal and relative forms are maximal projections rather than complex heads, including the fact that the prosodic subconstituencies observed in the relative forms cannot be obtained by head movement. An analysis is then sketched which relies on remnant movement rather than head movement.