Showing papers on "Heat transfer published in 1977"

Heat and Mass Transfer between Impinging Gas Jets and Solid Surfaces

Abstract: Publisher Summary Heating or cooling of large surface area products is often carried out in devices consisting of arrays of round or slot nozzles, through which air impinges vertically upon the product surface. This chapter presents a comprehensive survey emphasizing the engineering applications and empirical equations, presented for the prediction of heat and mass transfer coefficients within a large and technologically important range of variables. The local variations of the transfer coefficients are based on the experimental data for single round nozzles (SRN), arrays of round nozzles (ARN), single slot nozzles (SSN), and arrays of slot nozzles (ASN). The variation of local transfer coefficients is graphically represented. It also explores how to apply these equations in heat exchanger and dryer design as well as in optimization. The flow field of impinging flow is diagrammatically represented. External variables influencing heat and mass transfer in impinging flow depends on mass flow rate, kind and state of the gas and on the shape, size, and position of the nozzles relative to each other and to the solid surface. The design of high-performance arrays of nozzles is also discussed.

Simultaneous Heat, Mass, and Momentum Transfer in Porous Media: A Theory of Drying

Abstract: Publisher Summary The well-known transport equations for continuous media are used to construct a rational theory of simultaneous heat, mass, and momentum transfer in porous media. Several important assumptions regarding the structure of the gas–liquid system in a drying process are made that require theoretical or experimental confirmation. This chapter presents a general theory that provides a starting point for the construction of special theories so that various drying processes can be studied analytically without recourse to an enormous computational effort. It analyzes the motion of a liquid and its vapor through a rigid porous media. The development of the relevant volume averaged transport equations, which describe the drying process, is also focused. The transport of momentum in the gas phase and the laws of mechanics are applied to the drying process. The thermal energy equations are considered by forming the total thermal energy equation, and the problem of determining the mass average velocities in the gas and liquid phases are also discussed.

Thermal Conductivity of Soils

Abstract: : The aim of this investigation has been to create a mathematical model for calculating thermal conductivity of soils with ordinary soil parameters as input data. One part of this work has been devoted to literature studies on heat-transfer mechanisms in moist materials. These studies have made it possible to give bounds for the different domains where the various mechanisms have an appreciable influence on the total heat transfer.

Free convection about a vertical flat plate embedded in a porous medium with application to heat transfer from a dike

Abstract: An analysis is made for steady free convection about a vertical flat plate embedded in a saturated porous medium at high Rayleigh numbers. Within the framework of boundary layer approximations, similarity solutions are obtained for a class of problems where wall temperature varies as xλ, i.e., a power function of distance from the origin where wall temperature begins to deviate from that of the surrounding fluids. Analytical expressions are obtained for boundary layer thickness, local and overall surface heat flux, and local and average heat transfer coefficients. Application to convective heat transfer about an isothermal dike intruded in an aquifer is discussed.

Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning: Analysis and Design

Abstract: Preface About the Authors Symbols 1. Introduction 1-1 Historical Notes 1-2 Common HVAC Units and Dimensions 1-3 Fundamental Physical Concepts 1-4 Additional Comments References Problems 2. Air-Conditioning Systems 2-1 The Complete System 2-2 System Selection and Arrangement 2-3 HVAC Components and Distribution Systems 2-4 Types of All-Air Systems 2-5 Air-and-Water Systems 2-6 All-Water Systems 2-7 Decentralized Cooling and Heating 2-8 Heat Pump Systems 2-9 Heat Recovery Systems 2-10 Thermal Energy Storage References Problems 3. Moist Air Properties and Conditioning Processes 3-1 Moist Air and the Standard Atmosphere 3-2 Fundamental Parameters 3-3 Adiabatic Saturation 3-4 Wet Bulb Temperature and the Psychrometric Chart 3-5 Classic Moist Air Processes 3-6 Space Air Conditioning Design Conditions 3-7 Space Air Conditioning Off-Design Conditions References Problems 4. Comfort and Health Indoor Environmental Quality 4-1 Comfort Physiological Considerations 4-2 Environmental Comfort Indices 4-3 Comfort Conditions 4-4 The Basic Concerns of IAQ 4-5 Common Contaminants 4-6 Methods to Control Humidity 4-7 Methods to Control Contaminants References Problems 5. Heat Transmission in Building Structures 5-1 Basic Heat-Transfer Modes 5-2 Tabulated Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficients 5-3 Moisture Transmission References Problems 6. Space Heating Load 6-1 Outdoor Design Conditions 6-2 Indoor Design Conditions 6-3 Transmission Heat Losses 6-4 Infiltration 6-5 Heat Losses from Air Ducts 6-6 Auxiliary Heat Sources 6-7 Intermittently Heated Structures 6-8 Supply Air For Space Heating 6-9 Source Media for Space Heating 6-10 Computer Calculation of Heating Loads References Problems 7. Solar Radiation 7-1 Thermal Radiation 7-2 The Earth's Motion About the Sun 7-3 Time 7-4 Solar Angles 7-5 Solar Irradiation 7-6 Heat Gain Through Fenestrations 7-7 Energy Calculations References Problems 8. The Cooling Load 8-1 Heat Gain, Cooling Load, and Heat Extraction Rate 8-2 Application of Cooling Load Calculation Procedures 8-3 Design Conditions 8-4 Internal Heat Gains 8-5 Overview of the Heat Balance Method 8-6 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer 8-7 Outside Surface Heat Balance Opaque Surfaces 8-8 Fenestration Transmitted Solar Radiation 8-9 Interior Surface Heat Balance Opaque Surfaces 8-10 Surface Heat Balance Transparent Surfaces 8-11 Zone Air Heat Balance 8-12 Implementation of the Heat Balance Method 8-13 Radiant Time Series Method 8-14 Implementation of the Radiant Time Series Method 8-15 Supply Air Quantities References Problems 9. Energy Calculations and Building Simulation 9-1 Degree-Day Procedure 9-2 Bin Method 9-3 Comprehensive Simulation Methods 9-4 Energy Calculation Tools 9-5 Other Aspects of Building Simulation References Problems 10. Flow, Pumps, and Piping Design 10-1 Fluid Flow Basics 10-2 Centrifugal Pumps 10-3 Combined System and Pump Characteristics 10-4 Piping System Fundamentals 10-5 System Design 10-6 Steam Heating Systems References Problems 11. Space Air Diffusion 11-1 Behavior of Jets 11-2 Air-Distribution System Design References Problems 12. Fans and Building Air Distribution 12-1 Fans 12-2 Fan Relations 12-3 Fan Performance and Selection 12-4 Fan Installation 12-5 Field Performance Testing 12-6 Fans and Variable-Air-Volume Systems 12-7 Air Flow in Ducts 12-8 Air Flow in Fittings 12-9 Accessories 12-10 Duct Design General 12-11 Duct Design Sizing References Problems 13. Direct Contact Heat and Mass Transfer 13-1 Combined Heat and Mass Transfer 13-2 Spray Chambers 13-3 Cooling Towers References Problems 14. Extended Surface Heat Exchangers 14-1 The Log Mean Temperature Deficiency (LMTD) Method 14-2 The Number of Transfer Units (NTU) Method 14-3 Heat Transfer-Single-Component Fluids 14-4 Transport Coefficients Inside Tubes 14-5 Transport Coefficients Outside Tubes and Compact Surfaces 14-6 Design Procedures for Sensible Heat Transfer 14-7 Combined Heat and Mass Transfer References Problems 15. Refrigeration 15-1 The Performance of Refrigeration Systems 15-2 The Theoretical Single-Stage Compression Cycle 15-3 Refrigerants 15-4 Refrigeration Equipment Components 15-5 The Real Single-Stage Cycle 15-6 Absorption Refrigeration 15-7 The Theoretical Absorption Refrigeration System 15-8 The Aqua-Ammonia Absorption System 15-9 The Lithium Bromide-Water System References Problems Appendix A. Thermophysical Properties Table A-1a. Properties of Refrigerant 718 (Water-Steam) English Units Table A-1b. Properties of Refrigerant 718 (Water-Steam) SI Units Table A-2a. Properties of Refrigerant 134a (1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane) English Units Table A-2b. Properties of Refrigerant 134a (1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane) SI Units Table A-3a. Properties of Refrigerant 22 (Chlorodifluoromethane) English Units Table A-3b. Properties of Refrigerant 22 (Chlorodifluoromethane) SI Units Table A-4a. Air English Units Table A-4b. Air SI Units Appendix B. Weather Data Table B-1a. Heating and Cooling Design Conditions United States, Canada, and the World English Units Table B-1b. Heating and Cooling Design Conditions United States, Canada, and the World SI Units Table B-2. Annual BinWeather Data for Oklahoma City,OK Table B-3. Annual Bin Weather Data for Chicago, IL Table B-4. Annual Bin Weather Data for Denver, CO Table B-5. Annual Bin Weather Data for Washington, DC Appendix C. Pipe and Tube Data Table C-1. Steel Pipe Dimensions English and SI Units Table C-2. Type L Copper Tube Dimensions English and SI Units Appendix D. Useful Data Table D-1. Conversion Factors Appendix E: Charts Chart 1a. ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 1 (IP) (Reprinted by permission of ASHRAE.) Chart 1b. ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 1 (SI) (Reprinted by permission of ASHRAE.) Chart 1Ha. ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 4 (IP) (Reprinted by permission of ASHRAE.) Chart 1Hb. ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 6 (SI) (Reprinted by permission of ASHRAE.) Chart 2. Enthalpy-concentration diagram for ammonia-water solutions (From Unit Operations by G. G. Brown, Copyright (c)1951 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) Chart 3. Pressure-enthalpy diagram for refrigerant 134a (Reprinted by permission.) Chart 4. Pressure-enthalpy diagram for refrigerant 22 (Reprinted by permission.) Chart 5. Enthalpy-concentration diagram for Lithium Bromide-water solutions (Courtesy of Institute of Gas Technology, Chicago IL.) Index

Transport phenomena in hydrothermal systems; cooling plutons

Abstract: The nature of heat and mass transport in plutonic environments has been described by partial differential equations and simulated by numerical approximation. A series of heuristic models based on these equations describes the general features of fluid circulation near an igneous intrusive body within the upper 10 km of the crust. Analysis indicates that fluid circulation is an inevitable consequence of magma emplacement. The magnitude of this circulation generates convective heat fluxes which predominate over conductive fluxes when host rock permeabilities exceed 1.0 nm/sup 2/. However, cooling rates for the pluton are not significantly shortened unless the pluton permeability is also greater than 1.0 nm/sup 2/. The geometries of circulation and isotherms are directly affected by variations in pluton size, depth, and permeability as well as permeability distribution in the host rock. The effect of fluid properties on heat and mass transport is striking. The style of circulation is controlled by coincident maxima of the isobaric thermal coefficient of expansion and heat capacity with the viscosity minima in the supercritical region of the H/sub 2/O system. Waters in intrusive systems are predicted to move several km in a few hundred thousand years. Temperature and pressure changes along the flowpaths producemore » changes in solvent properties. The fluid-rock interactions should generate diagnostic mineral assemblages and isotopic changes. Average fluid:rock mass ratios of 0.4 are realized over the permeable portions of the systems. The extent of circulation, and magnitude of convective heat flux over broad crustal regions and along plate boundaries may be much greater than suspected.« less

Solar seismology. II - The stochastic excitation of the solar p-modes by turbulent convection

Abstract: We test the hypothesis that the solar p-modes are stabilized by damping due to turbulent viscosity in the convective zone. Starting from the assumption that the modes are stable, we calculate expectation values for the modal energies. We find that the interaction between a p-mode and the turbulent convection is such that the modal energy tends toward equipartition with the kinetic energy of turbulent eddies whose lifetimes are comparable to the modal period. From the calculated values of the modal energies, we compute rms surface velocity amplitudes. Our predicted rms surface velocities range from 0.01 cm/sec for the fundamental radial mode to 0.6 cm/sec for the radial mode whose period is approximately 5 minutes. The predicted surface velocities for the low order p-modes are much smaller than the velocities inferred from recent observations.

Gas transfer to and across an air-water interface

Abstract: A treatment based on Reichardt's formulation of the velocity profile in turbulent flow over a smooth plane surface is shown to give good agreement with published data on the boundary layer transfer of heat and mass over a wide range of Prandtl (or Schmidt) number, s. Applied to transfer to a water surface, agreement with published laboratory results is also good for low air speeds (smooth water). Comparison with observations for the sea shows there is little difference between the calculated evaporation coefficient and those reported for the sea with winds of ∼7 m s -1 . This is consistent with sea trials having so far detected little increase of evaporation and heat transfer coefficients with wind speed over the range 4–10 m s -1 . The air/water transfer of non-reactive gas is governed by the resistance of the viscous sublayer of water, and the smooth surface treatment gives the transfer velocity ( V L ) on a liquid phase basis as V L = 0.082 ( p a /p w ) 1/2 s -2/3 u* where p a p w is the density ratio, air/water, and u * = friction velocity of the surface air flow. The agreement between this formula and published wind tunnel results is good for the smooth water condition. At higher wind speeds transfer exceeds the calculated value and appears then to increase roughly in proportion to the square of the wind speed. DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1977.tb00746.x

Analysis of melting in the presence of natural convection in the melt region

Abstract: An analysis of multidimensional melting is performed which takes account of natural convection induced by temperature differences in the liquid melt. Consideration is given to the melt region created by a heated vertical tube embedded in a solid which is at its fusion temperature. Solutions were obtained by an implicit finite-difference scheme tailored to take account of the movement of the liquid-solid interface as melting progresses. The results differed decisively from those corresponding to a conventional pure-conduction model of the melting problem. The calculated heat transfer rate at the tube wall decreased at early times and attained a minimum, then increased and achieved a maximum, and subsequently decreased. This is in contrast to the pure conduction solution whereby the heat transfer rate decreases monotonically with time. The thickness of the melt region was found to vary along the length of the tube, with the greatest thickness near the top. This contrasts with the uniform thickness predicted by the conduction solution. These findings indicate that natural convection effects, although unaccounted for in most phase change analyses, are of importance and have to be considered.

Heat Exchange Between Human Skin Surface and Thermal Environment

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Body Heat Balance Equations 2 Independent Variables in Human Thermal Environment 21 Ambient Temperature 22 Dew-point Temperature and Ambient Vapor Pressure 23 Air (and Fluid) Movement 24 Mean Radiant Temperature or Effective Radiant Field 25 Clothing Insulation 26 Barometric Pressure 27 Time of Exposure 3 Dependent Physiological Variables in Body Heat Balance Equation 31 Mean Skin Temperature 32 Skin Wettedness 33 Body Heat Storage and Rate Change of Mean Body Temperature 34 Metabolic Energy 4 Sensible Heat Exchange by Radiation and Convection 41 Operative Temperature 42 Clothing in Sensible Heat Exchange 5 Radiation Exchange 51 Mean Radiant Temperature and Effective Radiant Field 52 Direct Evaluation of Effective Radiant Field 53 Solar Radiation 54 Measurement of Radiation Exchange 6 Convective Heat Exchange 61 Heat Transfer Theory 62 Free and Forced Convection 63 Measurement of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient 64 Effect of Barometric Pressure 7 Evaporative Heat Exchange 71 Direct Measurement of Evaporative Heat Loss 72 Maximum Evaporative Heat Loss from Skin Surface 73 The Lewis Relation Between Heat and Mass Transfer Coefficients 74 Skin Wettedness vs Efficiency of Evaporative Regulation 8 Special Environments 81 Water Immersion 82 Hyperbaric Helium-Oxygen Atmospheres 9 Rational Temperature Indices of Thermal Environment 91 Operative Temperature 92 Humid Operative Temperature 93 Standard Operative Temperature 94 Standard Humid Operative Temperature 95 Standard Effective Temperature 96 A New Effective Temperature Index 10 Summary

Engineering Properties of Snow

Abstract: The general properties of snow are described with a view to engineering applications of data. Following an introduction and a short note on the origins of snow, data are given for fall velocities of snow particles, and for mass flux and particle concentrations in falling snow and blowing snow. Notes on the structural properties of deposited snow cover grain size, grain bonds, bulk density, overburden pressure, and permeability. A section on impurities deals with stable and radioactive isotopes, chemical impurities, insoluble particles, living organisms, acidity, and gases. Mechanical properties are treated only selectively, and the reader is referred to another paper for comprehensive coverage. The selective treatment deals with stress waves and strain waves, compressibility, effects of volumetric strain on deviatoric strain, and specific energy for comminution. The section on thermal properties covers heat capacity, latent heat, conductivity, diffusivity, heat transfer by vapor diffusion, heat transfer and vapor transport with forced convection, and thermal strain. The section on electrical properties opens with a brief discussion on dielectric properties of ice, and proceeds to a summary of the dielectric properties of snow, including dielectric dispersion, permittivity, dielectric loss, and d.c. conductivity. There are also notes on the thermoelectric effect and on electrical charges in falling and blowing snow. The section on optical properties deals with transmission and attenuation of visible radiation, with spectral reflectance, and with long-wave emissivity. The review concludes with some comments on engineering problems that involve snow, and the requirements for research and development.

A design handbook for phase change thermal control and energy storage devices

Abstract: Comprehensive survey is given of the thermal aspects of phase change material devices. Fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer within the phase change device are discussed. Performance in zero-g and one-g fields are examined as it relates to such a device. Computer models for phase change materials, with metal fillers, undergoing conductive and convective processes are detailed. Using these models, extensive parametric data are presented for a hypothetical configuration with a rectangular phase change housing, using straight fins as the filler, and paraffin as the phase change material. These data are generated over a range of realistic sizes, material properties, and thermal boundary conditions. A number of illustrative examples are given to demonstrate use of the parametric data. Also, a complete listing of phase change material property data are reproduced herein as an aid to the reader.

Heat Transfer Calculations Using Finite Difference Equations

Abstract: A comprehensive and illustrated account of the use of finite difference computational methods for heat transfer calculations is presented. The methods are basically simple but offer a powerful tool to the engineering designer or researcher faced with heat transfer problems of a difficult, or more often impossible, analytical nature. The text is oriented towards the practical man who needs a complete work to enable him to understand and apply the methods to solve his problems. Information is provided about all the many facets of analyzing and solving conductive heat transfer problems, including the computer programming aspects. The general problem considered is that of calculating the distribution of temperature or temperature history in a physical system in which heat transfer is taking place. A special attribute offered is the strong practical emphasis, and recent ideas on numerical solution techniques, and their implementation via Fortran computer programs. The various numerical solution schemes are illustrated through a series of worked examples, tabular computations, Fortran programs and case studies.

Thermodynamics in finite time: extremals for imperfect heat engines

Abstract: A general description is developed for processes involving work and two heat reservoirs or three heat reservoirs in terms of rates for continuous processes or of cycle averages for periodic processes. The description is applied to heat engines having friction, thermal resistance, and heat losses in order to determine the maximum power and maximum efficiency of such engines. By use of a geometric representation the reversible and irreversible parts of a process are separated as the components of a vector. This leads to the definition of a dimensionless quantity that measures irreversibility and is related in a complementary way to the traditional concept of efficiency. The new quantity appears to be useful in cases where efficiency has no well‐defined meaning.

Progress report on computer model for in situ oil shale retorting

Abstract: A one-dimensional mathematical model has been developed for simulating the chemico-physical processes involved in the concurrent, vertical retorting of a rubblized bed of oil shale. Included in the present model are those processes believed to have the greatest effects in either the hot-gas retorting mode or the combustion retorting mode. The physical processes are: axial convective transport of heat and mass caused by the bulk gas flow, axial conductive transport of heat, heat transfer between the gas stream and the shale particles, and water evaporation and condensation. The chemical reactions in the shale particles are: decomposition of kerogen and carbonate minerals, reaction of carbon with CO/sub 2/ and O/sub 2/, thermal degradation of oil, and release of fixed water. The chemical reactions in the gas stream are: combustion of CO produced from the reaction of carbon with CO/sub 2/, combustion of the fuel components in recycle gas, and oil combustion. The governing equations are solved numerically by a semi-implicit, finite-difference method. Gas stream flow rate as well as the composition and temperature of both the gas stream and the shale particles are calculated as a function of time and location in the retort. Recovery rates of oil and water frommore » the retort are also computed.« less

Effects of phase-change energy storage on the performance of air-based and liquid-based solar heating systems

Abstract: Models describing the transient behavior of phase-change energy storage (PCES) units are presented. Simulation techniques are used in conjunction with these models to determine the performance of solar heating systems utilizing PCES. Both air-based and liquid-based systems are investigated. The effects of storage capacity, storage unit heat transfer characteristics, collector area and location on the system performance are investigated for systems utilizing sodium sulfate decahydrate and paraffin wax as storage media. Optimum ranges of storage sizes are recommended on the basis of systems' thermal performance. Comparison is made between systems utilizing PCES and those using sensible heat storage, viz. rock beds in air-based systems and water tanks in liquid-based systems. The variation of the solar supplied fraction of load with storage size and collector area is given for systems utilizing both types of storage. The effects of location and collector energy loss coefficient on the relative performance of PCES and sensible heat storage are also investigated.

High-power laser propagation: Thermal blooming

Abstract: This paper presents a tutorial review of the self-induced thermal distortion of laser radiation propagating in absorbing media. The distortion of the laser beam is the result of heating of the path by absorption of a small fraction of the laser beam power by the medium which changes the index of refraction and therefore distorts the beam. Thermal-blooming effects can limit the laser powers which can be effectively propagated through the atmosphere, or in media which absorb laser power such as industrial or laboratory environments, liquid or gas cells, or even laser active media themselves. In this paper, we review the steady-state thermal blooming of CW beams including laboratory-simulation experiments and computer-code results. The thermal distortion of pulsed-laser radiation is also covered including single-pulse thermal distortion and the distortion of a train of laser pulses. In these discussions, we derive and identify the scaling laws and determine the important nondimensional parameters so that the results can be interpreted and applied to other propagation conditions. The thermal-blooming problem can be complicated by a number of circumstances, such as the geometry of the propagation path, and these special cases are also reviewed. Among those covered are: the influence of stagnation zones, transonic flow, the kinetic cooling effect, molecular and aerosol absorption and relaxation, laser-beam jitter, and atmospheric turbulence. In addition, the techniques utilized to minimize blooming, such as laser-beam shaping, and adaptive-optics phase correction, are also discussed.

Basic heat transfer

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Viscous Dissipation in Shear Flows of Molten Polymers

Abstract: Publisher Summary Heat transfer in flowing molten polymers is largely influenced by rheology–– the rheological properties of the polymer and by the flow geometry. The rheology of steady shear flow can treat most of the heat transfer problems completely. This chapter discusses the heat transfer problem, and classifies the heat transfer and viscous dissipation in molten polymers. The heat transfer in shear flow is analyzed and a large emphasis is laid on replacing the commonly used idealized boundary conditions–– constant wall temperature or constant wall heat flux by more general conditions. The heat transfer at the wall is described by an outer temperature difference and the Biot number that is used successfully for describing the boundary conditions for temperature calculations in solids. The Biot number is appropriate for describing the boundary conditions between isothermal and adiabatical, as they occur in real processes. A unifying concept is developed that makes it possible to comprise the most important shear flow cases into a single one that can be solved with one numerical program. The nonviscometric flow in channels and flow with free boundaries is also discussed. An example of heat transfer in unsteady unidirectional shear flow is also provided.

A Note on the Lateral Mixing of Water Masses

Abstract: The role of medium-scale interleaving of temperature and salinity in frontal regions is investigated and a model is presented in which a statistical equilibrium of the medium scale is achieved. Small-scale diffusion across intrusions, causing an attenuation of their T/S characteristics, is balanced by horizontal advection of heat and salt by the medium-scale motions. The “energy” source for the balance is the lateral variation in the temperature/salinity field associated with water mass transitions. Estimates of the cross frontal heat or sole exchange can he made based upon the intensity of the interleaving T/S fields. The lateral transfer is directly proportional to the vertical transports across intrusion boundaries by microscale processes. The same general principle for the enhancement of the cross frontal heat transfer by interleaving is similar to that achieved in automobile cooling systems by a radiator. The model, in effect, attempts to quantify our ignorance of lateral mixing of water mas...