Showing papers on "Internationalization published in 1986"

Strategic Trade Policy and the New International Economics

Abstract: This volume of original essays brings the practical world of trade policy and of government and business strategy together with the world of academic trade theory. It focuses in particular on the impact of changes in the international trade environment and on how new developments and theory can guide our trade policy.Contents: New Thinking about Trade Policy, Paul Krugman (Sloan School of Management, MIT). Rationales for Strategic Trade and Industrial Policy, James A. Brander (University of British Columbia). Strategic Export Promotion: A Critique, Gene M. Grossman (Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University). Government Policy and the Dynamics of International Competition in High Technology, Michael Borrus, Laura d'Andrea Tyson, and John Zysman (all at the University of California, Berkeley). What Should Trade Policy Target? Barbara Spencer (University of British Columbia). Credit Policy and International Competition, Jonathan Eaton (University of Virginia). Industrial Policy: An Overview, Geoffrey Carliner (National Bureau of Economic Research). Japan's Industrial Strategy, Kozo Yamamura (University of Washington). U.S. Trade and Industrial Policy, William R. Cline (Institute for International Economics). Strategic Behavior and Trade Policy, Alvin K. Klevorick (Yale University) and William Branson (Princeton University). The New Political Economy of Trade Policy, J. David Richardson, (University of Wisconsin). Trade Policy: An Agenda for Research, Avinash K. Dixit (Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University).Paul Krugman is Professor of Economics at MIT. A former member of the staff of the Council of Economic Advisers, Krugman is also coauthor, with Elhanan Helpman, of Market Structure and Foreign Trade (MIT Press 1985).

The social construction of management control systems

Abstract: The management accounting literature borrows heavily and uncritically from neo-classical economics and its intellectual affiliates in organization theory. We review this theoretical legacy and offer an alternative, dialectical approach. This alternative theoretical structure addresses many of the deficiencies found in the existing literature by incorporating inter-organizational and social conflict, and by recognizing the social origins and social consequences of corporate control systems. A socio-historical study of General Motors' strategies of internationalization — spanning some 60 years — is used to illustrate the implications of the alternative approach for management accounting and organization theory.

International Strategies of Non-Dominant Firms

Abstract: There has been a growing interest in how follower firms can compete with industry leaders. This article documents the use of international strategies by some non-dominant firms to avoid direct competition with industry leaders. Twenty-five cases of international strategies used by non-dominant firms in a variety of industries were cluster analyzed to identify common strategies. Seven different strategies were identified together with their attendant firm characteristics, stage of industry internationalization, and underlying competitive logic.

The financial revolution

Abstract: Assesses the impact of deregulation and internationalization on banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and real estate firms and describes the growing power of the world financial centers in New York, London, and Tokyo.

Research in international marketing

Abstract: Introduction. Part 1: Organisational Buying Behaviour and Cultural Variables. 1. Transferring Organisational Buying Theory Across Cultural Boundaries D T Wilson and A Ghoneim. 2. Migration, Cultural Distance and International Market Expansion S Reid. 3. Developing Communication Strategies for Foreign Market Entry M F Bradley. 4. The Change to Industry Maturity: An Irish Firm's Experience A O'Driscoll. 5. Buying Behaviour of Industrial Components: Inductive Approach for Descriptive Model Building K E Moller. Part 2: The Internationalisation Process - Theories and Evidence. 6. Export Behaviour: Directions for Future Research M J Thomas and L Araujo. 7. Internationalisation in the Information Technology Industry P W Turnbull and S Ellwood. 8. Tripartite Interactional - the Role of Sales Subsidiaries in International Marketing P W Turnbull. 9. Internationalisation Behaviour: Management Characteristics of Australian Manufacturing Firms by Level of International Development N J Barrett and I F Wilkinson. 10. International Marketing and Internationalisation Processes A Network Approach Jan Johanson and L Gunnar-Mattsson. Part 3: International Supplier-Customer Relationships. 11. The Components of the Complexity of International Supplier-Customer Relationships J M Arnaud, R Salle and J P Valla. 12. The Development Role of Purchasing in an Internationally Oriented Company B Axelsson and H Hakansson. 13. Industrial Product Class and Market Behaviour: A Study in the French Packaging Market S J Paliwoda and P Thomson. 14. Technical Exchange with Industrial Networks H Hakansson.

Japanese Financial Markets: Deficits, Dilemmas, and Deregulation

Abstract: This rigorous, timely, and engaging study analyzes the main innovations in Japan's financial markets over the last fifteen years. It investigates how Japan's fiscal deficits and current account swings have generated self-perpetuating cycles of innovation and deregulation in financial markets. Using portfolio theory, the book presents much original material on hotly debated issues, including how internationalized Japan's capital market is and how monetary policy is reacting to innovations.An overview chapter describes macro trends using a tripartite framework of overall asset intensity, distribution of assets among economic sectors, and the portfolio composition of each sector. Feldman notes strengthened feedback among interest rates and bases a unique taxonomy of financial innovation on this concept of feedback. The taxonomy is applied in chapter 3 to a description of micro developments in Japanese financial markets. Chapters 4 and 5 use a formal econometric model to dig deeper into questions about the nature of the loan market and monetary policy tools.Feldman focuses next on approaches to internationalization. Chapter 6 concerns the legal approach, which emphasizes how and why regulations on capital flows changed. Surprising conclusions are reached in chapter 7 using the quantity approach, which relates who transacted how much of which types of assets, and when. The price approach, based on the concept of interest parity, puts an actual date on internationalization. These three approaches are integrated in chapter 9, in a theoretical model that shows how opening financial markets to foreigners affects exchange rates and interest rates.A concluding chapter integrates the recurrent themes of market pressure, feedback, and deregulation in a provocative set of speculations on the future of the Japanese financial system.Robert Alan Feldman is an economist at the International Monetary Fund.

The Internationalization of American Banking and Finance: Structure, Risk, Adn World Interest Rates

Abstract: The transformation of American banking from the parochialism of 1960to the internationally linked structure of the 1980s is analyzed anddetailed quantitatively While the liberalization of trade and theexistence of and changes in financial regulations profoundly affected thepace and order of this transformation, it is argued that internationalbanking is the historic norm International banking on the one handprovides the opportunity to banks to diversify their portfolio, but maysimultaneously expose them to increased systematic risk, especially withregards to movements in the US real interest rate Deposit insuranceprovides an incentive for banks to take on such priced systematic riskwith welfare costs which must be balanced against the welfare gains fromthe insurance The paper closes with an exploration of the nature of thelinkage of major movements in real interest rates and exchange ratesFurther research seems warranted on monetary-policy-regime changes andinvestment-demand shifts as a result of changes in tax, regulatory, andpolitical climate

Sociology's Great Leap Forward: the Challenge of Internationalisation

Abstract: This paper advocates internationalising the sociology curriculum for both practical and theoretical reasons. Macro-sociology must drop the parochialism of implicitly confining itself to intra-state phenomena, based on Western historical experience, and develop a conceptual framework adequate to deal with the emergent transnational scene and transnational global structures and processes of change. Correspondingly, the sociology curriculum must be geared to increasing the international competency of students, both undergraduates and graduates. Doing so will attract better undergraduates seeking careers in the international field, and will for graduates provide training and research that will promote the number of sociologists actually engaged in international studies.

The Internationalization of American Banking and Finance: Structure, Risk, adn World Interest Rates

Abstract: The transformation of American banking from the parochialism of 1960 to the internationally linked structure of the 1980s is analyzed and detailed quantitatively. While the liberalization of trade and the existence of and changes in financial regulations profoundly affected the pace and order of this transformation, it is argued that international banking is the historic norm. International banking on the one hand provides the opportunity to banks to diversify their portfolio, but may simultaneously expose them to increased systematic risk, especially with regards to movements in the U.S. real interest rate. Deposit insurance provides an incentive for banks to take on such priced systematic risk with welfare costs which must be balanced against the welfare gains from the insurance. The paper closes with an exploration of the nature of the linkage of major movements in real interest rates and exchange rates. Further research seems warranted on monetary-policy-regime changes and investment-demand shifts as a result of changes in tax, regulatory, and political climate.

Market-Oriented Foreign Investment and Regional Development: Canadian Companies in Western New York

Abstract: Now-standard models of foreign direct investment need modification to explain the nature and location of cross-border investment flows into the U.S. These flows may be important for certain regional economies of the U.S. The market imperf ections model of foreign direct investment (FiJI) and evolving theories of enterprise internationalization are used to generate hypotheses concerning the sector, activity, and size mix of trans-border direct investment. From an investigation of Canadianowned companies identified in western New York, support is found for a model of internationalization and for a limited role of FD1I attraction in regional planning programs. Foreign direct investment (FDI), the foreign ownership' and control of an economic venture, has several important implications for the host country or region. It can provide financial capital, management expertise, and technological capability that might not be made available through international contract

Matching the multinationals: obstacles to international trade unionism

Abstract: Unions are the potential but secure democratic counterforce to capital. The creation of “objective conditions” for international co‐operation has preceded but must result in “subjective conditions”. This theme survives little challenged as a central tenet of the official labour movement in country after country. The pervasive complacency in other circles concerning the prospects for industrial democracy to be achieved through the internationalisation of the evolutionary, pluralistic collective bargaining model, particularly at a time when that model seems unable to cope with born again free market philosophies even at a national level.

International dimensions of business policy and strategy

Abstract: This text shows the reader that corporate strategy must take into consideration the global aspect of its external environment. It focuses clearly on the internationalization of competition and markets, and discusses subsequent changes in corporate strategies. The coverage not only includes the normal functional strategies of production, finance and marketing, but also the issues of locational strategies, market penetration, technology transfer and corporate social responsibility from a global perspective.

Housing in an Internationalizing Region: Housing Stock Dynamics in Southern California and the Dilemmas of Fair Share

Abstract: The Los Angeles region is undergoing an unprecedented internationalization of its population. This trend is introducing a number of Third World characteristics into the region, not the least of which are extremes in housing wealth, overcrowding, and reghettoization of its urban cores. The region is also attempting to implement a fair-share housing effort to counteract this reghettoization. Analysis of the housing-stock dynamics in the region reveals inherent dilemmas in this effort. It also suggests the need to reconsider local government land-use and housing regulations.

The Internationalisation of Japanese Education.

Abstract: The internationalisation of education and schooling is an important problem with which Japanese education is now confronted. One of the general characteristics of contemporary education is that within the scope of national education each nation takes the responsibility for providing education for its own citizens. More recently, however, we see an emerging tendency towards educational co-operation between nations beyond the framework of national education; and, within this framework, international exchanges of educational theory and practice, students, and teachers have become widespread. A number of factors can be cited to account for the trend towards international cooperation in education; however, they may be classified into two categories, actual and ideal. The actual factors, which include political, economic, industrial, social, and cultural activities expanding beyond the boundaries of nations, and the world-wide development of means of communication and transportation, have increased the opportunity for contact among nations, on various levels. Such actualities require, for example, individuals involved with cross-national contacts who have command of foreign languages, a good understanding of foreign countries, and other abilities necessary for associating and co-operating with foreigners. Today's education is thus expected to fulfil the need for the development of these skills and abilities.

International strategies of non-dominant firms

Abstract: There has been a growing interest in how follower firms can compete with industry leaders. This article documents the use of international strategies by some non-dominant firms to avoid direct competition with industry leaders. Twenty-five cases of international strategies used by non-dominant firms in a variety of industries were cluster analyzed to identify common strategies. Seven different strategies were identified together with their attendant firm characteristics, stage of industry internationalization, and underlying competitive logic.

New sociopolitical forces: the globalization of conflict

Abstract: Not only must multinational corporations deal with governments of their home countries and various host countries, they must now contend with the pressures of change exerted through international organizations such as U.N.‐based agencies and public interest groups. The Nestle infant formula controversy, more so than any other event, has crystallized the growing internationalization of conflicts.

Foreign Policy Export Controls and American Multinational Corporations

Abstract: The increasing utilization of foreign policy export controls by the U. S. Government has generated considerable conflicts with American multinational corporations. The exercise of such controls against the Soviet Union, Iran, Nicaragua, Libya, and other countries entails loss of sales for many American firms and also threatens important MNC objectives such as free trade, corporate autonomy and neutrality, and contract sanctity. However, the Executive Branch has discovered that the administrative and political difficulties encountered in linking trade to diplomatic purpose are formidable, and that the internationalization of production by American MNCs has made it difficult to regulate foreign access to the American "capitalist warehouse" as required by trade sanctions.

Transportation and logistics curricula: still too domestic?

Abstract: This article notes that in spite of an increasing national awareness of the need to focus on the international aspects of business, as reflected in the business literature, the curricula of transportation and logistics programs in the U.S. remain heavily domestic. The lack of focus is noted at all levels of curricula, but is particularly pronounced at doctoral level. This study reports a survey which evaluated the internationalization of transportation and logistics curricula. Three areas were covered: demographic program information, undergraduate course information, and graduate course information. The results of the survey are presented in three sections: the overall use of international components in the transportation and logistics curriculum, characteristics of the international content of individual course offerings, and the role of specific texts in the internationalization of introductory courses.

The new international division of labour in the textile and garment industry: how far does the ‘babbage principle’ explain it?

Abstract: The international division of employment in the clothing and textile industry has been changing in the last 20 years. Such employment has declined in developed market economies but increased in developing countries and centrally planned economies. It is a widely held view that this is a result of the internationalisation of the Babbage principle. This theory and other forces that may be operating are discussed and illustrated with a case study of the UK textile multinational, Tootal. The case of Tootal suggests a need for a more multidimensional analysis than is produced by relying on the Babbage principle. The company's contribution to the new international division of labour has been to shift its emphasis much more towards its circuits of money capital and commodity capital and to internationalise these circuits. Tootal is a better example of the international centralisation of capital through financial and marketing lines than of the international fragmentation of products.

Internationalization of Industry: An Assessment in the Light of a Small Open Economy (Switzerland)

Abstract: I. Interdependency Through Internationalization in an Historical and Global Perspective.- 1 The "International Disorder": Some Historical Digressions on the Structure of Global Interdependencies.- 2 Dimensions and Perspectives of Interdependence: Exports, Multinationals, and New Forms of Internationalization.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 The Trade View: Exports and Imports.- 2.3 The Perspective of Foreign Direct Investment.- 2.4 The Entrepreneurial View: New Forms of Internationalization.- 2.5 Opportunities for New Forms of Internationalization in the Future.- 3 Global Forces Behind New Forms of Internationalization.- 3.1 The Displacement of Global Industrial Dynamics.- 3.2 Revolution in Information, Communication, Transportation, and Production Technologies and their Rapid International Diffusion.- 3.3 A Speed-Up of Structural Adjustment Processes with Adverse Effects on the Traditional Industrial Countries.- 3.4 The World Debt Problem and New Forms of Internationalization.- 4 The Structural Adjustment Problems of the National Economy: Views on the "Competitiveness Debate" of Swiss Executives.- II. A Taxonomy of New Forms of International Investment and Export Financing.- 5 New Forms of International Investment.- 5.1 Licensing.- 5.2 Sub-Contracting.- 5.3 Consulting.- 5.4 Contractual Cooperation.- 5.5 Joint Ventures.- 5.6 Group Investment.- 6 New Forms of Export Financing.- 6.1 Barter.- 6.1.1 Classical or "Pure" Barter.- 6.1.2 Barter with Contractual Participation of a Third Party.- 6.1.3 Parallel Barter.- 6.1.4 Triangular Barter.- 6.2 Long-term Commercial Framework Agreements.- 6.3 Counterdelivery.- 6.4 Offset.- 6.5 Junktim.- 6.6 Turnkey.- 6.7 Buy-Back.- III. Economic Theory and New Forms of Internationalization: Toward the Synthesis of a General Model.- 7 Introduction: Synopsis of Theoretical Development with Regard to Trade, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), and New Forms of Internationalization (NFI).- 8 The Transaction Cost Approach to New Forms of International Investment (NFII).- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 NFII in the Categories of Internationalization Theory.- 8.3 Critical Review of Orthodox Internalization Theory.- 8.4 Attempts to Integrate NFII into a Theoretical Framework.- 9 The Transaction Cost Approach to New Forms of Export Financing (NFEF).- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Transaction Costs and Risks as Determinants of Exchange Systems:the Niehans Model.- 9.3 Tariffs, Subsidies, and Deficient Market Transparency as the Determinants of Countertrade.- 9.3.1 Countertrade in Situations of Bilateral Monopoly.- 9.3.2 Countertrade as a Rational Strategy for Combatting a Lack of Market Transparency.- 9.3.2.1 The Invisible Handshake: Okun's Theory of Implicit Contracts as Applied to Countertrade.- 9.3.2.2 Countertrade as a Reaction to a Lack of Market Signals on World Markets.- 10 Competitive Advantage and Technological Change from the Strategic Perspective of the Firm.- IV. Empirical Research on the Impact of New Forms of Internationalization on Swiss Industry.- 11 Empirical Research Concept and Data Base of Our Swiss Study.- 11.1 Empirical Research Concept.- 11.2 DataBase.- 12 Case Study Results.- 12.1 Case Studies of New Forms of International Investment (NFII).- 12.1.1 Utilization of New Forms of International Investment and the Branch of Industrial Activity.- 12.1.2 New Forms of International Investment and Technology.- 12.1.3 New Forms of International Investment and Management Structure.- 12.1.4 New Forms of International Investment and Export Activity.- 12.1.5 Market Characteristics of Firms Utilizing New Forms of International Investment.- 12.2 Case Studies on New Forms of Export Financing (NFEF).- 12.2.1 The Chemical Industry.- 12.2.2 The Pharmaceutical Industry.- 12.2.3 The Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries: the Case of a Multinational Firm.- 13 Results of the Survey on New Forms of International Investment (NFII).- 13.1 An Overview of International Activities.- 13.2 New Forms of International Investment and Traditional Categories of Industrial Analysis.- 13.2.1 New Forms of International Investment and Exports.- 13.2.2 New Forms of International Investment and Foreign Direct Investment.- 13.2.3 New Forms of International Investment and the Size of the Firm.- 13.2.4 New Forms of International Investment and Industrial Branch.- 13.2.5 New Forms of International Investment and Host Countries.- 13.2.6 New Forms of International Investment and the Level of Technology.- 13.3 The Various New Forms of International Investment in our Sample.- 13.4 The Role of New Forms of International Investment in the Future.- 14 Results of the Survey on New Forms of Export Financing (NFEF).- 14.1 Forms of Countertrade: their Frequency.- 14.2 Forms of Countertrade: their Geographical Distribution.- 14.3 Regional Distribution of Various Forms of Countertrade.- 14.4 Countertrade According to the Size of the Firm.- 14.5 Classical Exports Versus New Forms of Export Financing.- 14.6 The Relative Importance of Countertrade in Export Activity.- 14.7 Entrepreneurial Motivation for Export Activity.- 14.7.1 The Motives Behind Export Expansion.- 14.7.2 The Motives Behind Export Contraction.- 14.8 Protectionist Distortions in Foreign Markets Due to Government Assistance of Foreign Competitors.- 14.9 Industry-Specific Forecasts of Countertrade.- 14.10 Insurance and Risk-Taking: Exports Versus Countertrade.- 15 Results of Surveys of Swiss Multinationals.- 15.1 Foreign Employment, FDI, and International Production by Swiss Multinationals.- 15.2 New Forms of International Investment by Swiss Multinationals.- V. Synthesis: Conclusions and Recommendations for Economic Policy and Business Strategy.- 16 A Framework for the Evaluation of New Forms of Internationalization (NFI).- 16.1 Perspectives and Interests of the Various Actors.- 16.2 A Measuring Rod for the Efficiency and Equity of New Forms of Internationalization.- 16.3 The Main Elements of a Framework for Evaluation.- 17 Recommendations for Private Business Strategies.- 17.1 New Forms of Internationalization: the Link Between Global Disintegration and the International Operations of Firms.- 17.2 A Strategic Concept for New Forms of Internationalization.- 17.3 The Choice between Exports, New Forms of Export Financing, and New Forms of International Investment.- 18 Recommendations for Economic Policies at the National and International Levels.- 18.1 Internationalization of Industry and the Sovereignty of the Nation State.- 18.2 The Choice of a National Strategy.- 18.3 Foreign Trade Policy and New Forms of Internationalization.- 18.4 Democratic Corporatism and Swiss Domestic Policy.- References.

New Forms of International Investment

Abstract: Our conceptual framework for research on New Forms of Internationalization (NFI) rests on a basic distinction between two fundamentally different forms On the one hand we investigated New Forms of International Investment (NFII) and on the other hand New Forms of Export Financing (NFEF) Both are aimed at reducing the transaction costs of internationalized entrepreneurial activities, that is, at reducing the transaction costs of the two classic forms of internationalization: exports and direct foreign investment (DFI) In fact, exports and DFI can be conceptualized as polar opposites on a continuous spectrum of forms of internationalization which in some way or the other are a combination of these two “pure” forms More specifically, all New Forms of Internationalization are designed to serve the following purposes: — internationalizing profitability of the core skills of a particular entrepreneurial unit or firm — internationalizing various business activities and services — internationalizing marketing strategies — overcoming protectionist regulations and other barriers to trade

Internationalization of securities markets: a critical survey of u.s. and eec disclosure requirements

Abstract: This Article examnes the disclosure systenis in the EEC and the U.S. considering the trend towards internationahzation of capital narkets. The Article suggests that present U.S. requirements for foretgn issuers do not adequately address the similartties of the two disclosure regimes. Tie Artitcle discusses the recent proposal of the SEC to facilitate multinational securttr offerings in light of these considerations and suggests that the proposal provides an opportunity to make U.S. requirements more reflective of the internationahzation trend.

The Changing International Division of Labor and Regional Employment Cycles in the U.S.

Abstract: In this paper we explore at an empirical level some of the effects of changes in the international division of labor on the cyclical behavior of the largest U.S. metropolitan regions. Two types of effects are hypothesized: an indirect effect transmitted through induced changes in the industrial and enterprise structure of a regional economy, and a direct effect via the internationalization of the U.S. economy.

International Division of Labour or Closer Co-operation? A look at ASEAN-EC economic relations

Abstract: Until the late 1970s the theory of international economic policy co-operation was not well devel oped. As Pelkmans (1979, p. 97) aptly remarked: "In economic theory there is a great discrepancy between the sophisticated analysis of interna tional markets and the scanty treatment of the internationalization of policy." Recently, this lack of analysis has generally been felt quite seriously in the rather embarrassing discussions concerning the drift of world economic affairs in the transition from the old to some new inter national economic order. To start with, an interpretation of the vague term co-operation "as any common action aimed at improving a working system" (Pelkmans) has the (debatable) advantage of including both policies aimed at extending and protecting the successfully established liberal system of inter national trade and policies for closer co operation transcending the free trade international division of labour approach. The first mode of co-operation is by no means positively correlated to the degree of interde pendence of the world economy. Increasing international division of labour ? in particular of the horizontal, substitutive kind ? apparently does not guarantee closer international co operation. Rather, experience tells us that co operation and international solidarity are jeop ardized: trade and investment wars are not merely a threat any longer; calls for fair ? instead of free ? trade are on the agenda; and the tide of new protection has been coming in. Consequently, aspects of international solidarity in the context of different trade patterns and the call for so-called "positive" policies have to be taken into consideration. That will be done in the next section. Closer co-operation, however, could also be understood from a different, more unilateral perspective, that is, that of the largest trading partner of the world economy, the European Community (EC). Although fundamentally part of the multilateral liberal system, the EC has gradually created a kind of "superstructure". Regarding the North-South division of labour, a policy of closer co-operation via preferences and special relationships has evolved. The extension of this system and the methods of operation within the world economy raise specific problems to be analysed in the subsequent section. There is naturally some discrepancy between both strategies of international co-operation distinguished here. Closer analysis of the new co-operative relationship between ASEAN and the EC, however, brings to light an additional element, namely the common concern of the "Trilaterals" (Japan, USA, EC) in the region. In the presence of the existing and potential tough competition of its trilateral allies, the question

The “International Disorder”: Some Historical Digressions on the Structure of Global Interdependencies

Abstract: The highly visible political phenomenon which motivated the author of this book to undertake, structure, and carry out this study was the “growth of protectionism” in the global economy. We want to emphasize at the outset, however, that this investigation is not a study about protectionism in the traditional sense. While the general aim of our work was to examine the circumstances surrounding government policies which are aimed at protecting domestic economic activities from foreign competition, the specific goal was to study entrepreneurial response to these policies. Thus the particular object of our detailed research is New Forms of International Investment (NFII) and New Forms of Export Financing (NFEF), what is referred to jointly as New Forms of Internationalization (NFI). The rise and utilization of these new forms cannot be understood without reference to the current employment of protectionist policies by national governments in both the industrialized and the developing countries. At the same time our approach (moving from protectionism to new forms of entrepreneurial behaviour) enables us to situate political conflicts within a long-term historical context. Thereby we are able to identify dogmatic, ideological, and out-dated theories for what they really are and thus to identify patterns of inconsistency between domestic policies and global realities.