Showing papers on "Interpersonal communication published in 1989"
TL;DR: This experiment tested predictions derived from a social contingency model of judgment and choice that identifies 3 distinctive strategies that people rely on in dealing with demands for accountability from important interpersonal or institutional audiences.
Abstract: This experiment tested predictions derived from a social contingency model of judgment and choice that identifies 3 distinctive strategies that people rely on in dealing with demands for accountability from important interpersonal or institutional audiences. The model predicts that (a) when people know the views of the audience and are unconstrained by past commitments, they will rely on the low-effort acceptability heuristic and simply shift their views toward those of the prospective audience, (b) when people do not know the views of the audience and are unconstrained by past commitments, they will be motivated to think in relatively flexible, multidimensional ways (preemptive selfcriticism), and (c) when people are accountable for positions to which they feel committed, they will devote the majority of their mental effort to justifying those positions (defensive bolstering). The experiment yielded results supportive of these 3 predictions. The study also revealed some evidence of individual differences in social and cognitive strategies for coping with accountability. Many writers have criticized cognitive social psychology for its apparent indifference to the interpersonal and institutional settings within which people make judgments and choices (e.g., Gergen, 1982; Sampson, 1981). Although these critiques make important points, it is necessary to advance beyond metatheoretical position papers and to specify the particular ways in which interpersonal and institutional variables interact with cognitive tendencies of the perceiver to shape how people actually make up their minds. Recent research on accountability points to one possible answer. Tetlock (1985a) has argued that accountability is a universal feature of everyday decision-making environments. Accountability, from this standpoint, is a critical rule- and normenforcement mechanism: the social psychological link between individual thinkers on the one hand and the social systems to which they belong on the other. The fact that people are ultimately accountable for their decisions is an implicit or explicit constraint on virtually everything they do. Failure to behave in ways for which one can construct acceptable accounts leads to varying degrees of censure—depending, of course, on the gravity of the offense and the norms of the organization (Schlenker, 1982; Scott L Tetlock, 198 la). A good deal of experimental evidence indicates that accountability pressures can affect both what people think (the beliefs and preferences they express) and how they think (the reasoning
681 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a literature review draws upon current research to examine the interpersonal and organizational barriers female managers face in developing and maintaining effective mentoring relationships in organizations, and a longitudinal theory of mentoring and career development for women in organizations is presented.
Abstract: Mentoring relationships may be critical for women seeking advancement in organizations. The infrequency of mentoring relationships for females suggests special concerns and considerations. This literature review draws upon current research to examine the interpersonal and organizational barriers female managers face in developing and maintaining effective mentoring relationships in organizations. An analysis is made of gender differences in the function, nature, and effectiveness of mentoring relationships. Recommendations and guidelines for future research and theory development are proposed. The groundwork for a longitudinal theory of mentoring and career development for women in organizations is presented. Implications for organizations are also discussed.
469 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined teacher education students' expectations about future teaching performance, their explanations for their predictions, and their descriptions of good teaching and found that students tend to engage in "unrealistic optimism" and to demonstrate self-serving biases, perceiving as important for teaching those attributes that they themselves possess.
Abstract: Weinstein examines teacher education students' expectations about future teaching performance, their explanations for their predictions, and their descriptions of good teaching. Students tend to engage in "unrealistic optimism" and to demonstrate self-serving biases, perceiving as important for teaching those attributes that they themselves possess. When describing "a really good teacher," students emphasize interpersonal/affec tive variables and downplay academic dimensions ofteaching. These descriptions are compared with those of inservice teach ers. Results indicate that inservice teachers also tend to em phasize interpersonal/affective variables.
381 citations
Journal Article•
TL;DR: The most influential leaders motivate their people through joint identification with collective goals rather than through rewards and punishments as mentioned in this paper and encourage dissent, disagreement, and truth from associates and search for the truth yourself by spending time in the field, analyzing your own operations, and talking with employees and customers.
Abstract: E xecutives must resolve to lead, not merely to manage. There's a major difference. Many organizations are well managed and poorly led because executives address routine problems while ignoring or slighting important matters. They allow themselves to become buried with details that should be delegated to assistants. True leaders are able to draw others to them through focused commitment, make dreams come alive and unite people behind those dreams, communicate through vivid models and examples, and know the extent of their skills and apply them effectively. Successful leaders inspire employees by making them feel significant. Learning and competence are highly valued, and workers feel they're part of a genuine team or family. The most influential leaders motivate their people through joint identification with collective goals rather than through rewards and punishments. If you hope to lead your organization to prominence you must encourage dissent, disagreement, and truth from associates and search for the truth yourself by spending time in the field, analyzing your own operations, and talking with employees and customers. You must also balance your career and personal roles, using ambition, talent, and learning ability to serve rather than enslave you. As constant as change has been in this century, and as vital as it is today, it is still difficult to bring about. People in leadership positions must be agents of adjustment who face things as they are and prepare for things as they will be. If competence and conscience are to be restored to government, business, and society alike, that restoration must start with those who propose to lead our organizations. It must begin with you.
329 citations
TL;DR: The history of the person-situation controversy is reviewed in this article, where two models, a social intelligence model and a goals model, for analyzing personsituation interaction and the question of person-environment congruence are considered.
Abstract: The history of the person-situation controversy is reviewed. Although this controversy is not new, and most psychologists now see themselves as interactionists, they disagree about the kinds of person, situation, and interaction process units that should be emphasized. Two models, a social intelligence model and a goals model, for analyzing person-situation interaction and the question of person-environment congruence are considered.
300 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose that psychotherapy researchers, theoreticians, and practitioners can better understand the process and action of psychotherapy if they are acquainted with the types of experience clients have in therapy.
249 citations
TL;DR: The authors examines the importance of the verbal exchange of positive and negative information about a firm's products and services and presents suggestions for learning what is being said and how to gain systematic control over the word-of-mouth process.
Abstract: Examines the importance of the verbal exchange of positive and negative information about a firm′s products and services Presents suggestions for learning what is being said and how to gain systematic control over the word of mouth process Suggests a model of this process, including interpersonal communications among a variety of stakeholder groups Highlights the case of the hospitality industry, but makes suggestions of use to all service businesses
228 citations
TL;DR: A day treatment program was provided for 31 children with DSM-III diagnoses of infantile autism or pervasive developmental disorder and subjects demonstrated significant treatment effects in cognition, perceptual/fine motor, social/emotional, and language skills, which were maintained or increased over a 12- to 18-month treatment period.
Abstract: A day treatment program was provided for 31 children (ages 2 through 6) with DSM-III diagnoses of infantile autism or pervasive developmental disorder. The main intervention strategies were use of positively charged affective experiences to aid the development of close interpersonal relationships, use of play in all its interpersonal, cognitive, and structural variety, and a pragmatics-based language therapy model delivered within a highly predictable and carefully structured milieu. Over a 6-month intervention period, subjects demonstrated significant treatment effects in cognition, perceptual/fine motor, social/emotional, and language skills, which were maintained or increased over a 12- to 18-month treatment period. Play skills increased significantly in symbolic complexity, symbolic agency, and symbolic substitutions. Additionally, there was significant reduction of autistic symptomology.
207 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a four-year longitudinal study of the impact of communication apprehension on grade point average and persistence at the university level was conducted, which indicated high CA students were significantly more likely to drop out and attain lower grade point averages compared to low CA students.
Abstract: Communication apprehension is conceptualized as a causal agent in student success. It is implicated in both academic and interpersonal success, two factors identified by prior resesarch as primary predictors of persistence. A four year longitudinal study of the impact of communication apprehension on grade point average and persistence at the university level was conducted. Results indicated high CA students were significantly more likely to drop out and attain lower grade point averages compared to low CA students. The impact of CA was strongest during the first two years. A replication of the study confirmed the impact of CA on student persistence. It is concluded the impact of CA on the probablity of high CA students’ survival in college is substantial and this impact adds to the case favoring the provision of training programs to assist such students overcome their apprehension about communication.
177 citations
TL;DR: This paper explored the form and function of deception in close relationships and found that falsification was the most frequently reported type of deceptive communication and avoiding hurt to partner was the more frequently reported specific reason for deception.
Abstract: This study explores the form and function of deception in close relationships. Free response descriptions of situations involving the deception of a relational partner were obtained from 357 university students and other adults. Descriptions were coded for type of deceptive communication, antecedent condition, type of information and reasons given for being deceptive. Results indicated that falsification was the most frequently reported type of deceptive communication and avoiding hurt to partner was the most frequently reported specific reason for deception. Comparisons across types of relationship revealed that (1) married respondents reported proportionately more instances of omission and fewer instances of explicit falsification relative to other relationship types, (2) dating respondents reported proportionately more reasons focused on protecting their resources and avoiding stress/abuse from partner, (3) dating respondents reported proportionately more reasons focused on avoiding relational trauma/t...
TL;DR: In this article, a case study was conducted to examine the reciprocal, interlocking processes of counseling and supervision, and the authors applied social psychological theories of self-presentation and interpersonal influence in an in-depth case study (1 client, 1 counselor trainee, and 1 supervisor).
Abstract: Were concerned with the reciprocal, interlocking processes of supervision and counseling. To examine the theoretical model of parallel process, we applied social psychological theories of selfpresentation and interpersonal influence in an in-depth case study (1 client, 1 counselor trainee, and 1 supervisor) of the naturally developing therapeutic and supervisory relationships. Multiple indexes of the process and outcome (of both treatments) provided self-reported and verbal communication data. Results point to the similar aspects of the two relationships, the possible indicators of parallel process, and an identification of the behavioral features of the supervisor's style. Conclusions provide guidance for more extensive research along these lines. Understanding the supervisory process and its effects on trainees and their clients has been hampered in three ways. First, most conceptual models of supervision rely on extrapolations from counseling theory. Although the supervisory and counseling processes share some important features—the emphasis on learning, empathy, personal growth, responsibility, and so forth—they differ in major ways that only recently have been acknowledged. Most important, in contrast to counseling, supervisors provide their trainees with an explicit performance evaluation that has considerable real-life consequences (Holloway, 1984). Second, there is little in the literature to suggest how to supervise, probably because little empirical evidence suggests what experienced, effective supervisors actually do. Third, the majority of conceptual models and published studies have failed to consider client factors as sources of variance. Any experienced supervisor is aware that one's work with a trainee can vary greatly depending on the client in question. Also, supervisors' evaluations of their trainees tend to fluctuate when the client improves or deteriorates (Ward, Friedlander, Schoen, & Klein, 1985). In our study we address each of these shortcominp in the literature. Our focus is the reciprocal, interlocking processes of counseling and supervision. Specifically, this case investigation (1 supervisor, 1 counselor trainee, and 1 client) was an attempt to determine the extent to which various relational aspects in counseling and supervision are similar and if interpersonal dynamics in either dyad carry over in a parallel fashion to the other dyad. Some authors (e.g., Doehrman, 1976; Ekstein & Wallerstein, 1972) have described parallel process phenomena, whereby trainees unconsciously present themselves to their This investigation was partially funded by a Faculty Research
Book•
01 Jan 1989
TL;DR: The building blocks of effective messages letters and memos interpersonal communication reports job hunting are discussed in this article, where the authors propose a method to identify the most effective messages and memos for job hunting.
Abstract: The building blocks of effective messages letters and memos interpersonal communication reports job hunting.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on self-disclosure, a communication behavior known to have considerable impact in other interpersonal contexts, was the focus of a research study, which assessed students' perceptions of the likelihood of teachers making each of 150 disclosive statements and derived profiles simulating good, neutral, mixed, and poor profile conditions.
Abstract: To develop an understanding of effective teaching in the typical classroom environment from a communication perspective, it is imperative the roles which interpersonal communication behaviors play in this context be understood. Self‐disclosure, a communication behavior known to have considerable impact in other interpersonal contexts, was the focus of this research. Phase 1 of the investigation assessed students’ perceptions of the likelihood of teachers making each of 150 disclosive statements. In the second phase, these statements were used to derive profiles simulating good, neutral, mixed, and poor profile conditions. Results from this study may provide teachers with a checklist which can be used to assess their own types of disclosures to students with an eye toward improving their own effectiveness.
TL;DR: The authors found that those who called in to talk radio programs tended to find face-to-face communication less rewarding, were less mobile, felt talk radio was more important to them, and listened for more hours a day than those who did not call but who did listen.
Abstract: Those who called in to talk radio programs tended to find face-to-face communication less rewarding, were less mobile, felt talk radio was more important to them, and listened for more hours a day than those who did not call but who did listen.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: Parts of the communication process between crewmembers (Captain and First Officer), were explored as a possible mediator to performance in a high-fidelity flight simulator project in which aircrew performance was found to be better when the crew had recently flown together.
Abstract: This study of group process was motivated by a high-fidelity flight simulator project in which aircrew performance was found to be better when the crew had recently flown together. Considering recent operating experience as a group-level input factor, aspects of the communication process between crewmembers (Captain and First Officer), were explored as a possible mediator to performance. Communication patterns were defined by a speech act typology adapted for the flightdeck setting and distinguished crews that had previously flown together (FT) from those that had not flown together (NFT). A more open communication channel with respect to information exchange and validation and greater First Officer participation in task-related topics was shown by FT crews while NFT crews engaged in more non-task discourse, a speech mode less structured by roles and probably serving a more interpersonal function. Relationships between the speech categories themselves, representing linguistic, and role-related interdependencies provide guidelines for interpreting the primary findings.
TL;DR: This article applied a language-based model to the actor-observer domain in attribution theory and found that the actor and observer differences can be understood as differential language conventions used by actors and observers.
Abstract: Two studies are reported which apply a language based model to the actor-observer domain in attribution theory. This model distinguishes between four classes of interpersonal terms (descriptive action verbs, interpretive action verbs, state verbs, and adjectives) that have been shown to mediate different cognitive inferences. An adaptation of this language based model suggests that actor-observer differences can be understood as differential language conventions used by actors and observers. This hypothesis finds support in the first study where subjects were asked to give free descriptions to a number of social events. A second study examined the more specific implications of this general case by replicating an experiment reported by Nisbett et al. (1973). The same language based conventions are shown to be used by actors and observers in this more specific case. The implications of these findings are drawn out with special reference to the influence of culture on cognitive processes.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the role of cuelessness in social interaction in teaching by telephone, D.R.Rutter "out of their minds" -an analysis of discourse in two South African science classrooms, Johan Muller.
Abstract: Part 1 Concepts of interpersonal communication: the social psychological approach to interpersonal communication, Peter Bull and Derek Roger current developments in conversation analysis, John Heritage conversation analysis and social psychology as descriptions of interpersonal communication, Robert Hopper. Part 2 Methods of observation: experimental studies of dyadic turn-taking behaviour, Derek Roger recalling someone from the past, Paul Drew family interaction from an interactional sociolinguistic perspective, Erica Huls. Part 3 Transcription procedures: psychological approaches to transcription, Peter Bull preliminary notes on a possible metric which provides for a "standard maximum" silence of approximately one second in conversation, Gail Jefferson on the use of general phonetic techniques in handling conversational material, J.Kelly and J.K.Local. Part 4 Data analysis: time and action, Peter Collett remarks on the methodology of conversation analysis, A.J.Wootton. Part 5 Research applications: social skills and physical handicap, Andrew P.Thomas the role of cuelessness in social interaction - an examination of teaching by telephone, D.R.Rutter "out of their minds" - an analysis of discourse in two South African science classrooms, Johan Muller.
TL;DR: In this article, a study was conducted with 188 supervisors to assess the relationships among supervisory attributions, the exchange relationship between leaders and subordinates, and critical performance incidents, and the results indicated that internal, but not external, attributions were significantly related to the leader-member exchange and to critical performance events.
Abstract: A study was conducted with 188 supervisors to assess the relationships among supervisory attributions, the exchange relationship between leaders and subordinates, and critical performance incidents. The results indicated that internal, but not external, attributions were significantly related to the leader-member exchange and to critical performance incidents. We discuss the implications of these findings.
Book•
01 Feb 1989
TL;DR: The Languages of Conflict Management: Oral Strategies for a Supportive Communication Climate as mentioned in this paper, is a survey of nonverbal communication strategies for conflict management in conflict management environments, focusing on gender differences.
Abstract: 1.The Nature of Conflict. Assessment. Acknowledgment. Attitude. Action. Analysis. Third-Party Intervention. Explaining: The Rhetoric of Apology. 2.The Languages of Conflict Management: Oral Strategies for a Supportive Communication Climate. Descriptive Speech. Problem Orientation. Spontaneity. Empathy. Equality. Provisionalism. 3.The Languages of Conflict Management: Nonverbal Strategies for a Supportive Communication Environment. What Is Nonverbal Communication? Types of Direct Nonverbal Communication. Paralanguage. Nonverbal Communication Strategies for Conflict Management. 4.Gender Differences: The Impact of Communication Style on Conflict Management. Assessment. Acknowledgment. Attitude. Action. Analysis. 5.Cross-Cultural Awareness in Conflict Management. Assessment. Acknowledgment. Attitude. Action. Analysis. 6.How Writing Styles Can Create Conflict. Assessment: A Matter of Conceptualization. Acknowledgment: Reception. Attitude: Transmittal. Action. Analysis. 7.Conclusion. References. Author Index. Subject Index.
TL;DR: The authors examined the relationship between political behaviors, e.g., ingratiation, structure change, cooptation, and threat, and their outcomes such as interpersonal trust, alienation, and feeling about job performance.
Abstract: The study examines the relationship between political behaviors, e.g., ingratiation, structure change, cooptation, and threat, and their outcomes such as interpersonal trust, alienation, and feeling about job performance. A negative relationship between political behaviors and interpersonal trust andfeelings about performance, and a positive relationship between political behaviors and alienation is hypothesized. Results largely support the hypotheses. However, a relationship between political behaviors and feelings about job performance is marginal. Findings are discussed in the light of available research.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigate the relationships between the dimensions and components of intercultural communication competence and show that significant relationships are predicted. But, their results were not supported by the empirical evidence.
Abstract: This study was designed to investigate the relationships between the dimensions and components of intercultural communication competence. In this study, 149 international students and 129 American people were used as respondents. Significant relationships were predicted. Results from correlation and canonical analyses showed that the two hypotheses were supported. Limitations and directions for future research were also discussed.
TL;DR: This paper argued that friendship involves inherent dialectical tensions as a specific category of interpersonal relationship within American culture, in actual communicative practices of friends, and within and across developmental periods of the life cycle.
Abstract: This monograph synthesizes selected findings from an ongoing program of empirical and theoretical research regarding the nature and functions of communication in young adult friendships. It argues that friendship involves inherent dialectical tensions as a specific category of interpersonal relationship within American culture, in the actual communicative practices of friends, and within and across developmental periods of the life cycle. First are delineated four basic elements of the dialectical perspective employed to analyze the communication of friends: totality, contradiction, motion, and praxis. Next, an extensive examination of dialectical principles inherent in the communicative management of friendship occurs. The principles are then used to develop an intelligible frame for the practices and predicaments of managing young adult friendships communicatively with particular attention to gender, marriage, and work exigencies. Implications for the study of interpersonal communication in general and ...
TL;DR: In this paper, a cross-cultural study examined cultural influences on the content conceptualized in moral terms and on judgments of moral accountability and found that Indians tended to categorize role-related interpersonal responsibilities as moral issues, whereas Americans tended to regard them in personal terms.
Abstract: The present cross-cultural study examined cultural influences on the content conceptualized in moral terms and on judgments of moral accountability. The sample included 24 middle-class American adults, 24 middle-class Indian adults, and 16 lower-class Indian adults. Comparison was undertaken of subjects' evaluations and rule categorizations of 14 everyday incidents involving breaches of role-related interpersonal responsibilities or of justice. It was found that whereas Indians tended to categorize role-related interpersonal responsibilities as moral issues, Americans tended to regard them in personal terms. It was also observed that Indians displayed a significant tendency, not found among Americans, to absolve agents of accountability for justice breaches. No significant effects of sex or socioeconomic status occurred. Results were interpreted as demonstrating that moral reasoning may be based on role-based interpersonal responsibilities and not merely on justice considerations. The findings also implie...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors report data that provide insight into teachers' perspectives regarding the impact of personal-life factors on their work lives, and conclusions and implications are drawn regarding gender as well as personal and professional development issues.
Abstract: This article reports data that provide insight into teachers’ perspectives regarding the impact of personal-life factors on their work lives. Open-ended questionnaires were used to collect data from 200 teachers. The data were analyzed according to qualitative methods for grounded theory research. Thirteen categories reflecting positive and negative effects were identified in the data. These categories are discussed in terms of three general classifications: interpersonal personal, and socioeconomic. Finally, conclusions and implications are drawn regarding gender as well as personal and professional development issues.
TL;DR: Chez 271 adolescents de 16 ans sont examined les liens entre les niveaux and les styles des strategies de negociation interpersonnelle, la competence dans la resolution de problemes sociaux and la presence de troubles comportementaux as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Chez 271 adolescents de 16 ans sont examines les liens entre les niveaux et les styles des strategies de negociation interpersonnelle, la competence dans la resolution de problemes sociaux et la presence de troubles comportementaux
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined empirically the functionality of signs and iconic communication book symbols in community settings with two students with autism and found that successful communication with books but not with signs was demonstrated.
Abstract: Functional communication skills are essential for effective participation in society by persons with autism and other developmental disabilities. Because most of the general public does not understand sign language, use of this method in typical community settings has been questioned. This study examined empirically the functionality of signs and iconic communication book symbols in community settings with two students with autism. The results demonstrated successful communication in community settings by the students with communication books but not with signs. These results are discussed as they relate to functionality and training issues associated with the two communication systems.
TL;DR: In this article, six hypotheses were deduced that predicted the linguistic features of help-seeking messages from obstacles associated with (a) the type of request (borrowing favors) and (b) relational intimacy.
Abstract: Scholars recognize that language can be used to accomplish goals. If so, messages should be constructed so as to overcome obstacles to the achievement of interpersonal objectives. Based upon this perspective, six hypotheses were deduced that predicted the linguistic features of help-seeking messages from obstacles associated with (a) the type of request (borrowing favors) and (b) relational intimacy. The results of a study that tested these hypotheses are reported; support for each was found. Specifically, messages seeking to borrow a resource proposed contractual arrangements aimed at reducing the costs of lending. On the other hand, favor-seeking messages included more inquiries about the costs of compliance to the target and offers of compensation. Relational obligations and resulting facework were also studied. As predicted, when seeking to borrow a resource, intimacy was negatively related to communicated facework; when seeking a favor intimacy was positively related to facework. Finally, when a request to borrow a resource was rejected, intimacy was positively related to counter persuasion cues and negatively related to expressed forgiveness; however, when a favor-seeking message was refused, intimacy was positively related to communicated forgiveness.