Showing papers on "Interpersonal communication published in 1991"

Social psychological aspects of computer-mediated communication

Abstract: As more and more people use computers for communicating, the behavioral and societal effects of computer-mediated communication are becoming critical research topics. This article describes some of the issues raised by electronic communication, illustrates one empirical approach for investigating its social psychological effects, and discusses why social psychological research might contribute to a deeper understanding of computer-mediated communication specifically and of computers and technological change in society more generally. One objective of our research is to explore how people participate in computer-mediated communication and how computerization affects group efforts to reach consensus. In experiments, we have shown differences in participation, decisions, and interaction among groups meeting face to face and in simultaneous computer-linked discourse and communication by electronic mail. We discuss these results and the design of subsequent research to highlight the many researchable social psychological issues raised by computing and technological change. Computer technologies are improving so swiftly these days that few of us comprehend even a small part of the change. Computers are transforming work and, in some cases, lives. Whether eager for this or resistant, many people believe the organizational, social, and personal effects of computers will be deeply felt (De Sola Poole, 1977; Hiltz & Turoff, 1978; Kling, 1980). Today, no one can predict in any detail the nature of the transformations that computers will bring, but one aspect of life that will certainly be affected is communication. The use of electronic mail and messages, long-distance blackboards, computer bulletin boards, instantaneously transferable data banks, and simultaneous computer conferences is reportedly advancing "like an avalanche" (Stockton, 1981; also see Kraemer, 1981). The U.S. federal judiciary, for example, is using electronic mail to speed the circulation of appellate opinion drafts among panels of judges (Weis, 1983). Computer conferences are being used for such legal proceedings as admission of evidence, trial scheduling, giving parties access to documents, and expert interrogation (Bentz & Potrykus, 1976; "Party-Line Plea," 1981). Other government agencies, such as the Department of Defense, as well as private firms, such as Westinghouse Corporation and Xerox Corporation, and some universities, use computer-mediated communication extensively for both routine transfer of data and nonroutine interpersonal communication and project work (e.g., Licklider & Vezza, 1978; U.S. Department of Commerce, 1977; Wang Corporation, 1982). Computer-mediated communication was once confined to technical users and was considered somewhat arcane. This no longer holds true. Computer-mediated communication is a key component of the emerging technology of computer networks. In networks, people can exchange, store, edit, broadcast, and copy any written document. They can send data and messages instantaneously, easily, at low cost, and over long distances. Two or more people can look at a document and revise it together, consult with each other on critical matters without meeting together or setting up a telephone conference, or ask for and give assistance interactively (Hiltz & Turoff, 1978; Williams, 1977). Networks, and hence computer-mediated communications, are proliferating at a tremendous rate. In addition to the older long-distance networks that connect thousands of scientists, professionals, and managers (e.g., the Department of Defense's ARPANET, GTE's TELENET), there are more and more local-area networks that link up computers within a region, city, or organization (e.g., Nestar System's CLUSTERBUS, Xerox's ETHERNET, Ford Aerospace's FLASHNET, and Wang Laboratories' WANGNET). Stimulating this growth are the decreasing costs and the advantages of networks over stand-alone systems, such as sharing high-speed printers and access to a common interface for otherwise incompatible equipment. The future of this technology cannot be foretold, but it is far from arcane. The functions and impact of computer-mediated communication are still poorly understood. Critical information (such as who uses it for what purposes) October 1984 • American Psychologist Copyright 1984 by the American Psychological Aisociation, Inc. Vol. 39, No. 10, 1123-1134 1123 is lacking, and the social psychological significance is controversial (see, e.g., Turoff, 1982). Computers could make communication easier, just as the canning of perishables and the development of can openers made food preparation easier, or they could have much more complex implications. For instance, access to electronic communication may change the flow of information within organizations, altering status relations and organizational hierarchy. When a manager can receive electronic mail from 10,000 employees, what happens to existing controls over participation and information? When people can publish and distribute their own electronic newspaper at no cost, does the distribution of power change too? When communication is rapid and purely textual, do working groups find it easier or harder to resolve conflict? These unanswered questions illustrate that, although the technology may be impressive, little systematic research exists on its psychological, social, and cultural significance. Given such conditions it seems sensible to try to understand the fundamental behavioral, social, and organizational processes that surround computer-mediated communication. We believe that ideas and approaches from social psychology and other areas of behavioral science can be applied to these questions. This article is meant to describe some of the issues raised by electronic communication; to illustrate, from our own work, one empirical approach for investigating them; and to show why social psychological research might contribute to a deeper understanding of electronic communication specifically and of computers and technological change in society more generally. We begin by citing some existing research on computer-mediated communication. Most of this research addresses the technical capabilities of the electronic technologies. Next, we consider the possible social psychological impact, and we discuss some hypotheses and some possible implications for the outcomes of communication. Finally, we describe some of our own experiments on social psychological aspects of computer-mediated communication, using these to indicate potential lines of future research.

Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media

Abstract: I. THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE. 1. Introduction to Mass Communication Theory. II. SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION. 2. Scientific Method. 3. Models in Mass Communication Research. III. PERCEPTION AND LANGUAGE ISSUES IN THE MASS MEDIA. 4. The Role of Perception in Communication. 5. Problems in Encoding. 6. Analysis of Propaganda: First Theories of Decoding and Effects. IV. THE SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH. 7. Cognitive Consistency and Mass Communication. 8. Theories of Persuasion. 9. Groups and Communication. 10. Mass Media and Interpersonal Communication. V. MASS MEDIA EFFECTS AND USES. 11. Agenda Setting. 12. The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis. 13. Effects of Mass Communication. 14. Uses of the Mass Media. VI. MEDIA CHANNELS. 15. Mass Media in Modern Society. 16. Media Chains and Conglomerates. 17. Theories of Cyber Communication. VII. BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER. 18. The Overall Picture.

The equalization phenomenon: status effects in computer-mediated and face-to-face decision-making groups

Abstract: New computer-based communications technologies make possible new or expanded forms of group work. Although earlier researchers suggest that scant social information in these technologies might cause status equalization in groups, no experimental test of this phenomenon has been made. In a laboratory experiment, we compared face-to-face communication with electronic mail in decision-making groups whose members differed in social status. We examined status in two ways: by varying the external status of group members, and by varying the decision task to manipulate expertise. When the groups made decisions in face-to-face meetings, the high-status member dominated discussions with the three low-status members. Also, the high-status member more often was a "first advocate" in the face-to-face discussions, and first advocates were more influential than later advocates. These status inequalities in face-to-face decision making were pronounced just when the high-status member's expertise was relevant to the decision task. When the same groups made comparable decisions using electronic mail, status and expertise inequalities in participation were reduced. A striking and unexpected result was that "first" advocacy was shared by high-and low-status members in discussions using electronic mail. This behavior resulted in increased equality of influence across status and expertise. We discuss the implications of these results for research and for design of new communication technologies.

The multicultural organization

Abstract: Executive Overview Organizations are becoming increasingly diverse in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, and nationality. This diversity brings substantial potential benefits such as better decision making, greater creativity and innovation, and more successful marketing to different types of customers. But, increased cultural differences within a workforce also bring potential costs in higher turnover, interpersonal conflict, and communication breakdowns. To capitalize on the benefits of diversity while minimizing the potential costs, leaders are being advised to oversee change processes toward creating “multicultural” organizations. What are the characteristics of such an organization, and how do they differ from those of the post? What mechanisms are available to facilitate such a change? This article addresses these questions. It also describes a model for understanding the required features of a multicultural organizations and reviews tools that pioneering companies have found useful in changing organ...

Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communication

Abstract: PREFACE 1. Communicating with Strangers An Overview of the Communication Process Managing Uncertainty and Anxiety Effective Communication Study Questions Applications Notes 2. Understanding Cultural Differences Culture Individualism-Collectivism Other Dimensions of Cultural Variability Cultural Identity Study Questions Applications Notes 3. Understanding Group Differences Social Identities Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity Identities Based on Gender, Disability, Age, and Social Class Study Questions Applications Notes 4. Having Expectations for Strangers The Nature of Expectations Stereotypes Intergroup Attitudes Changing Our Intergroup Expectations Study Questions Applications Notes 5. Attributing Meaning to Strangers' Behaviors The Perception Process The Attribution Process Culture and Attributions Personality Factors Influencing Our Attributions Improving the Accuracy of Our Attributions Study Questions Applications Notes 6. Exchanging Messages with Strangers The Nature of Language and Nonverbal Messages Cultural Differences in Language Usage Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication Language Usage in Communicating with Strangers Improving the Quality of Messages Exchanged with Strangers Study Questions Applications Notes 7. Being Perceived as Competent Communicators Defining Perceived Competence Motivation Knowledge Skills Study Questions Applications Notes 8. Managing Intergroup Conflict The Nature of Conflict Cultural and Ethnic Differences in Conflict Face Concerns Characteristics of Intergroup Conflict Managing Intergroup Conflict Study Questions Applications Notes 9. Developing Relationships with Strangers Similarities and Differences Across Groups Intergroup Relationships Intergroup Relationship Development Romantic Relationships Study Questions Applications Notes Notes Notes 10. Building Community with Strangers The Nature of Community Characteristics of Community Community and Public Life Civic Engagement Diversity and Community Ethical Issues in Building Community with Strangers Principles of Community Building Study Questions Applications Notes REFERENCES INDEX ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Computer-mediated communication, de-individuation and group decision-making

Abstract: This paper discusses social psychological processes in computer-mediated communication (CMC) and group decision-making, in relation to findings that groups communicating via computer produce more polarized decisions than face-to-face groups. A wide range of possible explanations for such differences have been advanced, in which a lack of social cues, disinhibition, “de-individuation” and a consequent tendency to antinormative behaviour are central themes. In these explanations, both disinhibition and greater equality of participation are thought to facilitate the exchange of extreme persuasive arguments, resulting in polarization. These accounts are briefly reviewed and attention is drawn to various problematic issues. We provide an alternative model and explanation based on social identity (SI) theory and a re-conceptualization of de-individuation, which takes into account the social and normative factors associated with group polarization. Predictions from both sets of explanations are explored empirically by means of an experiment manipulating the salience of the discussion group, and de-individuation operationalized as the isolation and anonymity of the participants. In this experiment we were able to partial out the effects of the CMC technology which have confounded comparisons with face-to-face interaction in previous research. The results challenge the explanations based on persuasive arguments, while being consistent with our SI model. We discuss our approach in relation to other very recent research in group computer-mediated communication and offer a reinterpretation of previous findings.

Communication, conflict, and psychological distance in nondistressed, clinic, and divorcing couples.

Abstract: This study compared communication patterns and conflicts over psychological distance in 25 nondistressed couples, 15 clinic couples, and 22 divorcing couples. Data consisted of questionnaire reports completed independently by husbands and wives. The two distressed groups, compared with nondistressed couples, had less mutual constructive communication, more avoidance of communication, more demand/withdraw communication, and more conflict over psychological distance in their relationships. In addition, the divorcing group had less mutual constructive communication than the clinic group and evidenced a trend for more conflict over psychological distance than the clinic group. Consistent with past research, wife demand/husband withdraw communication was more likely across all groups than husband demand/wife withdraw communication. Results are discussed in terms of skills deficits and incompatability models of marital discord.

Perspective-Taking in Communication: Representations of Others' Knowledge in Reference

Abstract: We review several studies examining perspective-taking in communication. One set of studies indicates that speakers exploit the common ground they share with their addressees in creating referring expressions and that such perspective-taking improves the listener's comprehension. A second set of studies examines an element of the perspective-taking process itself: the accuracy of people's assessments of others' knowledge. We find that such estimates are both fairly accurate and biased in the direction of the perceiver's own knowledge. However, the extent of their influence on message formulation depends on the availability of feedback. We conclude that perspective-taking in communication combines prior theories about what others know with information drawn from such conversational resources as verbal and nonverbal feedback.

Fundamentals of nonverbal behavior

Abstract: Preface Part I. Biological Approaches to Nonverbal Behaviour: 1. Neuropsychology of facial expression William E. Rinn 2. Brain pathology, lateralization, and nonverbal behaviour Pierre Feyereisen Part II. Sociodevelopmental Approaches to Nonverbal Behaviour: 3. The development of facial expresssions in infancy Linda A. Camras, Carol Malatesta and Carroll E. Izard 4. Toward an ecology of expressiveness: family socialization in particular and a model in general Amy G. Halberstadt Part III. Affective and Cognitive Processes: 5. Facial expression: methods, means, and moues Paul Ekman and Maureen O'Sullivan 6. Voice and emotion Arvid Kappas, Ursula Hess and Klaus R. Scherer 7. Gesture and speech Bernard Rime and Loris Schiaratura Part IV. Individual Differences and Social Adaptation: 8. Expressiveness as an individual difference Antony S. R. Manstead 9. Social competence and nonverbal behaviour Robert S. Feldman, Pierre Philippot and Robert J. Custrini 10. Nonverbal and self-presentation: a developmental perspective Bella M. Depaulo Part V. Interpersonal Processes: 11. Interpersonal coordination: behaviour matching and interactional synchrony Frank J. Bernieri and Robert Rosenthal 12. Symbolic nonverbal behaviour: talking through gestures Pio Enrico Ricci Bitti and Isabella Poggi 13. A fundamental approach to nonverbal exchange Miles L. Patterson Author index Subject index.

Computers, Networks and Work.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses use of computer networking in organizations. The networked organization differs from the conventional workplace with respect to both time and space. Computer-based communication is extremely fast in comparison with telephone or postal services. People can send a message to the other side of the globe in minutes; each message can be directed to one person or many people. Networks can also essentially make time standstill. Electronic messages can be held indefinitely in computer memory. People can read or reread their messages at any time, copy them, change them or forward them. Managers are often attracted to networks by the promise of faster communication and greater efficiency. Many organizations have adopted internal networks that link anywhere from a few to a few thousand employees.

Family Communication Patterns An Epistemic Analysis and Conceptual Reinterpretation

Abstract: This article addresses a recurring inconsistency in the epistemic interpretation of the Family Communication Patterns scales, widely used by mass communication researchers interested in the family. The traditional linkage to coorientation is reviewed, and a more direct interpretation is proposed, beginning with a face-valid reading of items commonly used in the scales. Results from a survey of 161 adolescents and their parents confirm that subjects associate the scales with underlying dimensions of conformity or control and openness or supportiveness. Subjects also associate objectives of interpersonal harmony with concept orientation rather than socio-orientation, as has been previously claimed. These findings provide a basis for clarifying and expanding theory and improving research methods.

When in Rome? The Effects of Cultural Adaptation on Intercultural Business Negotiations

Abstract: Drawing on social identity and similarity/attraction theories as well as empirical studies in intercultural communication, hypotheses were developed to test the effects of three degrees of adaptive behaviors during intercultural buyer/seller negotiations. Hypotheses covered both the positive and negative effects of adaptation on the adjudged interpersonal attractiveness of the adaptor. These hypotheses were tested in two experimental studies using scenario-based manipulations. The first study looked at American subjects' responses to adaptive behaviors of “Japanese business people”. To test the generalizability of these findings to a less familiar culture, a replication looking at American subjects' responses to adaptive behaviors of “Korean business people” was also conducted. The findings partially support the notion that moderate adaptation may be the optimal strategy in intercultural negotiations. Moderate adaptation was found to improve the adjudged attraction of the “Japanese business people” relative to no adaptation and substantial adaptation. However, this finding was not replicated with “Korean business people”.

Interpersonal Comparisons of Utility: Why and how they are and should be made.

Abstract: A satisfactory complete normative criterion for individualistic ethical decisionmaking under uncertainty such as Harsanyi’s (Journal of Political Economy , 1955) requires a single fundamental utility function for all individuals which is fully interpersonally comparable. The paper discusses reasons why interpersonal comparisons of utility (ICU’s) have been eschewed in the past and argues that most existing approaches, both empirical and ethical, to ICU’s are flawed. Either they confound facts with values, or they are based on unrealistic hypothetical decisions in an “original position”. Instead ICU’s need to be recognized for what they really are — preferences for different kinds of people. INTERPERSONAL COMPARISONS OF UTILITY . . . I still believe that it is helpful to speak as if inter-personal comparisons of utility rest upon scientiAEc foundations – that is, upon observation or introspection. . . . I still think, when I make interpersonal comparisons . . . that my judgments are more like judgments of value than judgments of veriAEable fact. Nevertheless, to those of my friends who think differently, I would urge that, in practice, our difference is not very important. They think that propositions based upon the assumption of equality are essentially part of economic science. I think that the assumption of equality comes from outside, and that its justiAEcation is more ethical than scientiAEc. But we all agree that it is AEtting that such assumptions should be made and their implications explored with the aid of the economist’s technique. — Robbins (1938, pp. 640–641)

Persuasion in practice

Abstract: What Persuasion is, What it is Not, and How it is Maintained Debunking Some Myths How People Interpret Reality Constructs, Schemata, Rules and Illusions Attitudes and Values Theoretical Orientations of Persuasion Research Contemporary Theories and Models of Persuasion Persuasion Variables Interpersonal Communication Persuasion in Organizations Persuasion and the Mass Media Political Persuasion Conclusion

Affective influences on partner choice : role of mood in social decisions

Abstract: Does mood influence our information search and decision strategies when choosing a partner? In Experiment 1 (N = 60), sad Ss preferred rewarding to competent partners and remembered information supporting that choice better. In Experiment 2 (N = 96), mood effects on information selectivity, decision speed, and processing strategy in partner choices were found. In Experiment 3 (N = 42), a computerized stimulus presentation revealed mood-induced differences in the latency, self-exposure, and eventual recall of interpersonal information. These results are interpreted as evidence for mood-induced selectivity in information search and decision strategies when making realistic partner choices. The implications of the findings for research on interpersonal relations and for contemporary affect-cognition theories are considered.

Communication Network Influences on Information Diffusion and Persuasion

Abstract: Communication networks' influences on the information diffusion process and the effects of 2 virtually identical communication programs were studied. These programs were implemented in 2 Dutch neighborhoods with different levels of cohesion. It was expected that information diffusion would be related to the number of network ties, whereas program effects would be related to the strength of network ties. Data were collected from a representative sample of the target group by means of pre- and posttest surveys and 5 small process surveys. The data confirm the main hypothesis and also provide some support for the strength-of-weak-ties hypothesis (Granovetter, 1973). No significant interaction effects of neighborhood and network variables were found. The results provide some insight on how people restrain each other from adoption and how this is related to the strength and number of communication ties. Persuasive communication is predominantly studied as an isolated, one-way phenomenon between a receiver and a source who tries to influence the receiver's attitudes or behavior through some channel by means of a persuasive message. Most researchers have placed a strong accent on cognitive processes inside individuals (cf. Roberts & Maccoby, 1985). The social context in which persuasion attempts take place has received much less attention in research on persuasive communication. Evaluation studies of public communication campaigns are illustrative in this respect. Most of these studies have focused almost exclusively on campaign outcomes of attitudes or of behaviors rather than on the process by which these outcomes were obtained. Remarkably little is known about the manner in which these outcomes might have been affected by informal interpersonal communications among receivers. This is surprising considering that as early as the 1940s and 1950s, researchers had demonstrated that mass media directly influence a small part of their audience at best, but that face-to-face contacts with other people influence most people (e.g., Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955; Lazarsfeld, Berelson, & Gaudet 1948). How and by what channels this influence takes place has not been thoroughly investigated. The lack of this kind of research is even more surprising in the light of the community-based communication program that was launched during the 1980s as a promising alternative to large-scale mass media campaigns. Although these programs are largely based on the notion that the social

More than relationship: Chinese interaction and the principle of kuan‐hsi

Abstract: Through an interpretive analysis of interviews of Chinese in Taiwan, it is demonstrated that the principle of kuan‐hsi (relations) undergirds the functional aspects of Chinese interpersonal relationships. Originally based on the teachings of Confucian philosophy, and grounded in the notion of the family as microcosm of the larger society, kuan‐hsi has evolved into a social resource in a sense somewhat at odds with the Confucian ideal, that is, more as an interpersonal resource in Chinese society. Findings of the study help to reevaluate the commonly held perceptions that Chinese are collective, concerned with social harmony over the individual, and indirect in their communication.

Value Congruence and Satisfaction with a Leader: An Examination of the Role of Interaction

Abstract: Organizations are increasing their use of sophisticated techniques, including video, to communicate with employees. They are also relying more on the use of "stories" and "legends" about leaders as a way of reinforcing their culture. An important issue in both of these trends is the relationship between the actions or behavior of the leader as depicted in the story or message and the values of the individuals who are the target of the story or message. This study examined this issue as it related to interpersonal affect. Sixty-three banking executives, 61 evening MBA students, and 102 full-time undergraduate students completed a work values survey and later viewed one of two video-taped presentations of leadership behavior. Results showed that congruence between a subject's values and the rated values of a leader was associated with greater anticipated satisfaction with the leader. This effect did not depend on the uncertainty of the leader's behavior, but seemed to be contingent on the subject having had...

Group processes in face-to-face and computer-mediated communication

Abstract: The study reports results from an experiment investigating aspects of communicative processes and outcome, using face-to-face, and computer-mediated communication. Degree of consensus, communication pattern, attitudes to media, and personality (extroversion-introversion) were studied. The subjects operated computer-mediated systems as a daily work-tool. There were two different problems to be discussed; a human relations problem and a problem involving judgement of important equipment for survival after an airplane-crash. The results showed no differences in problem-solving efficiency due to medium used, but difficulties to reach consensus in the inexperienced groups. There were no main effects of medium on equality and dominance, but several significant results in the survival problem, showing that face-to-face communication induces more conformity and opinion change as compared to computer-mediated communication. Face-to-face communication was preferred and there were only weak relationships be...

Psychological aggression in dating relationships: The role of interpersonal control

Abstract: This research examines the relatively unexplored area of psychological aggression in dating relationships. One causal factor of particular interest is interpersonal control, that is, the degree to which one person controls another in a relationship. Data are collected on men and women inflicting and sustaining psychological abuse in heterosexual college dating relationships. The results show that interpersonal control is an important predictor of psychological aggression.