Showing papers on "Interpersonal communication published in 1996"

Computer-Mediated Communication Impersonal, Interpersonal, and Hyperpersonal Interaction

Abstract: While computer-mediated communication use and research are proliferating rapidly, findings offer contrasting images regarding the interpersonal character of this technology. Research trends over the history of these media are reviewed with observations across trends suggested so as to provide integrative principles with which to apply media to different circumstances. First, the notion that the media reduce personal influences—their impersonal effects—is reviewed. Newer theories and research are noted explaining normative “interpersonal” uses of the media. From this vantage point, recognizing that impersonal communication is sometimes advantageous, strategies for the intentional depersonalization of media use are inferred, with implications for Group Decision Support Systems effects. Additionally, recognizing that media sometimes facilitate communication that surpasses normal interpersonal levels, a new perspective on “hyperpersonal” communication is introduced. Subprocesses are discussed pertaining to re...

Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approach

Abstract: Intro -- Intercultural Communication -- Contents -- Figures -- Series Editor's Preface -- Preface to the First Edition -- Preface to the Second Edition -- Preface to the Third Edition -- 1: What Is a Discourse Approach? -- The Problem with Culture -- Culture is a verb -- Discourse -- Discourse systems -- What Is Communication? -- Language is ambiguous by nature -- We must draw inferences about meaning -- Our inferences tend to be f ixed, not tentative -- Our inferences are drawn very quickly -- Interdiscourse communication and English as a global language -- What This Book Is Not -- Researching Interdiscourse Communication -- Four processes of ethnography -- Four types of data in ethnographic research -- Choosing a site of investigation -- Discussion Questions -- References for Further Study -- 2: How, When, and Where to Do Things with Language -- Sentence Meaning and Speaker's Meaning -- Speech Acts, Speech Events, and Speech Situations -- Grammar of Context -- Seven main components for a grammar of context -- Scene -- Key -- Participants -- Message form -- Sequence -- Co-occurrence patterns, marked and unmarked -- Manifestation -- Variation in context grammar -- "Culture" and Context -- High context and low context situations -- Researching Interdiscourse Communication -- Using the "grammar of context" as a preliminary ethnographic audit -- Discussion Questions -- References for Further Study -- 3: Interpersonal Politeness and Power -- Communicative Style or Register -- Face -- The "self" as a communicative identity -- The Paradox of Face: Involvement and Independence -- Politeness strategies of involvement and independence -- Linguistic strategies of involvement: some examples -- Linguistic strategies of independence: some examples -- Face Systems -- Three Face Systems: Deference, Solidarity, and Hierarchy -- Deference face system (−P, +D).

Interactions: Collaboration Skills for School Professionals

Abstract: 1. The Fundamentals of Collaboration. 2. Teams. 3. Co-Teaching. 4. Consultation. 5. Staff Development. 6. The Pragmatic Issues of Collaboration. 7. Interpersonal Problem Solving. 8. Interpersonal Communication. 9. Using Statements. 10. Asking Questions. 11. Difficult Interactions. 12. Perspectives and Issues.

Interpersonal facilitation and job dedication as separate facets of contextual performance.

Abstract: This study attempts to refine the construct of contextual performance by dividing it into 2 narrower constructs, interpersonal facilitation and job dedication. Supervisors rated 975 U.S. Air Force mechanics on at least 1 of 4 aspects of job performance (different supervisors rated each aspect of performance), and 515 of these mechanics also completed self-report individual difference measures. Correlations between performance ratings and individual difference variables support distinguishing task performance from interpersonal facilitation but not from job dedication. Thus this study suggests the need to redefine task performance to include motivational elements of job dedication. Then task performance would include task proficiency and motivation to perform one's own tasks effectively, and contextual performance would include interpersonal skills, the motivation to maintain good working relationships and help others perform their tasks.

Interpersonal Deception Theory

Abstract: Interpersonal deception theory (IDT) represents a merger of interpersonal communication and deception principles designed to better account for deception in interactive contexts. At the same time, it bas the potential to enlighten theories related to (a) credibility and truthful communication and (b) interpersonal communication. Presented here are key definitions, assumptions related to the critical attributes and key features of interpersonal communication and deception, and 18 general propositions from which specific testable hypotheses can be derived. Research findings relevant to the propositions are also summarized.

Perceiving interpersonal conflict and reacting to it: the case for agreeableness.

Abstract: Two converging, multimethod studies probed the hypothesis that individual differences in Agreeableness are related to patterns of interpersonal conflict. In Study 1, participants (N = 263) evaluated the efficacy of 11 modes of conflict resolution within the context of 5 different interpersonal relationships. Across all relationships, high- and low-agreeable participants rated negotiation and disengagement tactics as better choices that power assertion tactics. However, low-agreeable participants rated power assertion as a better choice than did high-agreeable participants. In Study 2, participants (N = 124) were assigned partners and were asked to resolve jointly 2 social conflict problems. Partners were videotaped, and observers coded behaviors. Participants also completed ratings of perceived conflict, partner perception, and liking of their partner. Agreeableness differences, sex of participant, and type of dyad partner were related to patterns of interpersonal conflict. Results were discussed in terms of personality and social influences during interpersonal conflict.

Contemporary Interpersonal Theory and Research: Personality, Psychopathology, and Psychotherapy

Abstract: Partial table of contents: PERSONALITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY. Overt Interpersonal Behavior and the Interpersonal Circle. Interpersonal Behavior: Moderating Factors and Other Issues. Covert Components of Interpersonal Behavior. Interpersonal Behavior and Our Bids for Complementarity. Measurement of the Covert Complementary Response: The Impact Message Inventory. Maladjusted Interpersonal Behavior: General Principles and Formulations for Specific DSM Disorders. DIAGNOSIS, PSYCHOTHERAPY, AND SUPERVISION. Interpersonal Assessment and Diagnosis. The Relationship in Psychotherapy: An Interpersonal Communication Analysis. Interpersonal Communication Interventions: Interpersonal Complementary Principles. Conclusion. References. Indexes.

Changing medical organization and the erosion of trust.

Abstract: Trust in medicine contributes to effective communication, cooperation in treatment, and the ability to cope with uncertainties Social trust in medicine reflects public attitudes and is shaped by media and current events Interpersonal trust depends on the degree to which patients see their doctors as competent, responsible, and caring The commercialization of medical care, conflicts of interest, media attention to medical uncertainty and error, and the growth of managed care all challenge trust Trust is encouraged by patient choice, continuity of care, and encounter time that allows, opportunities for feedback, patient instruction, and patient participation in decisions An informal inquiry of medical leaders indicates that most believe trust is eroding Institutions are taking measures to help restore trust: eliciting patient feedback; providing more information for patients are the public; improving staff education and sensitivity training; paying attention to clinicians' interpersonal skills; sponsoring support groups; instituting patient empowerment projects; and focusing on ethics issues

The Calgary-Cambridge Referenced Observation Guides: an aid to defining the curriculum and organizing the teaching in communication training programmes

Abstract: Effective communication between doctor and patient is a core clinical skill. It is increasingly recognized that it should and can be taught with the same rigour as other basic medical sciences. To validate this teaching, it is important to define the content of communication training programmes by stating clearly what is to be learnt. We therefore describe a practical teaching tool, the Calgary-Cambridge Referenced Observation Guides, that delineates and structures the skills which aid doctor-patient communication. We provide detailed references to substantiate the research and theoretical basis of these individual skills. The guides form the foundation of a sound communication curriculum and are offered as a starting point for programme directors, facilitators and learners at all levels. We describe how these guides can also be used on an everyday basis to help facilitators teach and students learn within the experiential methodology that has been shown to be central to communication training. The learner-centred and opportunistic approach used in communication teaching makes it difficult for learners to piece together their evolving understanding of communication. The guides give practical help in countering this problem by providing: an easily accessible aide-memoire; a recording instrument that makes feedback more systematic; and an overall conceptual framework within which to organize the numerous skills that are discovered one by one as the communication curriculum unfolds.

An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research

Abstract: Contents: Preface Part I: Studying "Theory" -- Doing "Research" DW Stacks, MB Salwen, Integrating Theory and Research: Starting With Questions SH Chaffee, Thinking About Theory MJ Beatty, Thinking Quantitatively JA Anderson, Thinking Qualitatively: Hermeneutics in Science Part II: Mass Communication Approaches and Concerns BS Greenberg, MB Salwen, Mass Communication Theory and Research: Concepts and Models PJ Shoemaker, Media Gatekeeping M McCombs, T Bell, The Agenda-Setting Role of Mass Communication N Signorielli, M Morgan, Cultivation Analysis: Research and Practice C Gaziano, E Gaziano, Theories and Methods in Knowledge Gap Research Since 1970 JD Rayburn, II, Uses and Gratifications CT Salmon, CJ Glynn, Spiral of Silence: Communication and Public Opinion as Social Control RL Stevenson, International Communication J Bryant, D Zillmann, Violence and Sex in the Media E Thorson, Advertising Part III: Human Communication Approaches and Concerns JC McCroskey, VP Richmond, Human Communication Theory and Research: Traditions and Models WR Fisher, SD O'Leary, The Rhetorician's Quest MD Miller, TR Levine, Persuasion CR Berger, Interpersonal Communication E Nieva, M Hickson, III, Modeling Cultures: Toward Grounded Paradigms T Steinfatt, DM Christophel, Intercultural Communication B Goss, Intrapersonal Communication AS Ebesu, JK Burgoon, Nonverbal Communication R Hirokawa, AJ Salazar, L Erbert, RJ Ice, Small Group Communication BJ Allen, P Tompkins, S Busemeyer, Organizational Communication Part IV: Integrated Approaches to Communication KK Reardon, EG de Pillis, Multichannel Leadership: Revisiting the False Dichotomy EM Rogers, A Sing

CLASS-BASED MASCULINITIES The Interdependence of Gender, Class, and Interpersonal Power

Abstract: This article presents a theoretical framework that views interpersonal power as interdependent with broader structures of gender and class inequalities. In contrast to oversimplified, gender-neutral or gender-static approaches, this approach illuminates the ways that structures of inequality are expressed in ideological hegemonies, which enhance, legitimate, and mystify the interpersonal power of privileged men relative to lower-status men and women in general. The discussion centers on how the relational construction of ascendant and subordinated masculinities provide men with different modes of interpersonal power that, when exercised, (re)construct and reaffirm interclass male dominance. Examples of how the construction of femininity can undermine women's interpersonal power and implications for other forms of masculinities and femininities are discussed. Examples are drawn from an analysis of conjugal power in the accounts of remarried individuals' first and second marriages to illustrate the main poi...

A cross-cultural study of interpersonal information exchange

Abstract: Research conducted primarily in the United States has shown that interpersonal influence arising from opinion exchange behavior is an important factor in consumers' product adoption and brand choice decisions. An important managerial question in the international arena is whether information-giving and seeking behaviors depend on culture. In a study representing eleven nationalities, we explore the role of culture in moderating consumers' opinion exchange behavior. Results indicate that the cultural characteristics of power distance and uncertainty avoidance [Hofstede 1980] influence the focus of consumers' product information search activities, but not their tendencies to share product-related opinions with others. Following earlier opinion leadership studies, we find that individual characteristics such as product category interest and involvement are most indicative of active opinion leadership behavior.

Information Suppression and Status Persistence in Group Decision Making The Effects of Communication Media

Abstract: This experiment investigated the conditions under which a member with information critical for making the best group decision will positively influence the group's final choice. The impact of two factors on group decision quality, information exchange, and perceptions of influence was examined: (a) status differences among members (equal-status vs. mixed-status groups) and (b) communication media (face-to-face vs. computer-mediated communication). Three-person groups were composed such that the critical information required to make the best decision was given only to the low-status member in the mixed-status groups and randomly assigned to one member in the equal-status groups. The results indicated that the mixed-status groups made poorer decisions and made fewer references to critical information than equal-status groups, regardless of the communication medium. Computer-mediated communication suppressed information exchange and the perceived influence of group members, suggesting that the relation between status and communication media is more complex than proposed in past research.

Social psychological models of interpersonal communication

Abstract: states or predispositions. Any particular behavioral episode can be characterized in a variety of ways at different levels of abstraction: "A Models of Interpersonal Communication page 32 punches B," or "A hurts B," or "A dislikes B." The most abstract way to characterize a behavior would be as evidence of a predisposition: "A is aggressive." Maass et al. found that negatively valent behaviors of outgroup members tend to be characterized at relatively high levels of abstraction, and those of in-group members are characterized more concretely, but for positively valent behaviors the pattern is reversed. Positively valent behaviors of out-group members are characterized as specific episodes, while those of in-group members are characterized abstractly. Maass et al. call this the "linguistic intergroup bias" (see also Hamilton, Gibbons, Stroessner, & Sherman, 1992; Maass & Arcuri, 1992). One consequence of the linguistic intergroup bias is to help make stereotypes resistant to disconfirmation, since behaviors that are congruent with the negative out-group stereotype will tend to be characterized as general properties ("Smith is lazy"), while behaviors that are inconsistent with the stereotype will tend to be characterized in quite specific terms ("Smith painted his house"). Although examining the causal implications of language has yielded fascinating results, there are reasons to be cautious about generalizing these findings to language use. Edwards and Potter (1993) have pointed out that simple, out of context subject-verb-object sentences of the kind typically used in studies of implicit causality are rarely encountered in discourse. Consequently, the judgments subjects make from them may have little to do with the way language normally is processed in communication. Seen in isolation, "Alan desires Jane" may be understood as consequence of Jane's desirability, but in the context of a narrative that depicts Alan as a compulsive womanizer, his desire for Jane may be attributed less as to her desirability than it is to his proclivity. Models of Interpersonal Communication page 33 Is implicit causality really a matter of encoding and decoding? Or, to put it another way, is an interpersonal verb's causal implications part of its linguistic meaning, or is it an inference an addressee will draw in a particular context of usage about what the speaker intended? Semin and Marsman (in press) argue that interpersonal verbs invite inferences about a variety of properties (e.g., the perceived temporal duration of the action or state, how enduring a quality they imply, affective consistency, etc.), causal agency being only one of them. Researchers have assumed that interpersonal verbs automatically trigger inferences about causal agency, but Semin and Marsman suggest that such inferences are themselves a consequence of contextual factors (e.g., the question the subject is asked). Much of the work on implicit causality has approached the phenomenon in linguistic terms, but it may be more readily understood as part of the addressee's attempt to infer an intended meaning. The general question of how addressee's extract intended meanings from messages is discussed in Section 3. 2.3 Issues and Limitations Two features of the Encoder/Decoder model should be highlighted. One is implicit in the very notion of a code, and is illustrated in the early color codability studies. It is that the meaning of a message is fully specified by its elements—i.e., that meaning is encoded, and that decoding the message is equivalent to specifying its meaning. The other feature is that communication consists of two autonomous processes—encoding and decoding. We have tried to illustrate the Encoder/Decoder schematically in Figure 1. Despite the fact that language can in certain respects be regarded as a code, and the fact that both encoding and encoding processes are involved in communication, encoding and decoding do not adequately Models of Interpersonal Communication page 34 describe what occurs in communication, as will be discussed in the next three sections. Here we will just briefly point to some areas where the approach falls short. In the first place, it is often the case that the same message can (correctly) be understood to mean different things in different circumstances. For example, some messages are understood to mean something other than their literal meaning. While there is not universal agreement on the value of the literal vs. nonliteral distinction (Dascal, 1989; Gibbs, 1982, 1984; Katz, 1981; Keysar, 1989; Searle, 1978), it is abundantly clear that the most commonplace utterance (e.g., "You're leaving") can be understood differently in different contexts (e.g., as an observation of a state of affairs, as a prediction of a future state of affairs, etc.). Without making the relevant context part of the code, a model that conceptualizes communication as simply encoding and decoding will have difficulty explaining how the same message can be understood to mean different things at different times. Moreover, even when context is held constant, the same message can mean different things to different addressees. And there is considerable evidence to indicate that speakers design messages with their eventual destinations in mind (Bell, 1980; Clark & Murphy, 1982; Fussell & Krauss, 1989a; Graumann, 1989; Krauss & Fussell, 1991). Similarly, there is growing evidence that nonverbal behaviors are not simply signs that encode internal state in a straightforward way. A facial expression may be related to a person's internal state, but comprehending its significance can require considerably more than simply identifying the expression as a smile, a frown, an expression of disgust, etc. For example, smiles are understood to encode a affectively positive internal state, but they hardly do this in a reflexive fashion. In a series of ingenious field Models of Interpersonal Communication page 35 experiments, Kraut (1979) found smiling to be far more dependent on whether or not the individual was interacting with another person than it was on the affective quality of the precipitating event, and Fridlund (1991) has shown that even for people who were alone, the belief that another person was engaged in the same task (albeit in another room) was sufficient to potentiate smiling. In dyadic conversations, the facial expressions of the listener (i.e., the person not holding the conversational floor at a given moment) may change rapidly. Some of these changes (e.g., smiles) may represent back-channel signals (Brunner, 1979; Chen, 1990), while others (e.g., wincing at the other's pain) may serve to signal the listener's concern (Bavelas, Black, Chovil, Lemery, & Mullet, 1988; Bavelas, Black, Lemery, & Mullet, 1986). Even aspects of voice quality cannot be straightforwardly interpreted. For example, a speaker's vocal pitch range is a consequence of the architecture of the vocal tract. However, social factors can influence how a given speaker places his or her voice within that range. Men seem to place their voices in the lower part of their vocal range, and women do not, which, incidentally helps explain why a man's size can more accurately be predicted from his voice than a woman's (Gradol & Swann, 1983). In addition, a speaker's pitch and amplitude will be influenced by the pitch and amplitude of the conversational partner (Gregory, 1986, 1990; Lieberman, 1967; Natale, 1975). In a similar fashion, a speaker's internal state can induce changes in voice quality, but the relationship is hardly one-to-one. For example, stress profoundly affects voice fundamental frequency, but in any specific instance the effect can vary considerably depending on the conversational partner (Streeter et al., 1983). So, while encoding and decoding may characterize the role of nonverbal behavior is Models of Interpersonal Communication page 36 some communication situations, the applicability of the model is far from universal. 3. INTENTIONALIST MODELS

Men and Women in Interaction: Reconsidering the Differences

Abstract: This is critical review and re-evaluation of the empirical literature on men and women in conversational interaction in light of recent debates about gender differences. Aries contends that gender differences have been exaggerated and that many variables have been ignored, most notably the status and power of the individuals in conversation, their race, their education, among other factors.

Look who's talking: A comparison of lecture and group discussion teaching strategies in developing critical thinking skills

Abstract: This study compares the effectiveness of traditional lecture methods of instruction to group discussion methods of instruction in developing critical thinking skills. The participants in this study were 118 students enrolled in introductory interpersonal communication classes. No significant difference was found between the two instructional methods in developing critical thinking skills. However, significant gains were found from the pretest to the posttest for both instructional strategies. Specifically, the lecture method of instruction produced significant learning with regard to total score, low‐level thinking items, and high‐level thinking items. Group discussion, however, produced significantly more learning with regard to higher‐level items. These findings indicate that face‐to‐face instructional methods make a significant difference in student learning.

Communication in personal relationships across cultures

Abstract: This innovative book contains studies of personal relationships from a variety of non-western cultures, and leaves behind the western biases that are typical of most research and theorizing done in this expanding area. Chapters focus on personal communication practices in countries including Iran, Brazil, Mexico, China, Japan and Korea. The editors cover the major theories that explain communication across cultures through both emic and etic approaches, by examining how members of a culture understand their own communication, and by comparing specific aspects of communication across cultures. They also suggest areas for future research.

Constituting Relationships in Talk A Taxonomy of Speech Events in Social and Personal Relationships

Abstract: In a series of four studies, a descriptive taxonomy of dyadic speech events in everyday relating was developed and employed to explore the constitutive functions of interpersonal communication. Twenty-nine speech events were identified and replicated through a variety of multi-method procedures, including unstructured and structured diary records, judgment sorting tasks, and semantic-differential rating scaks. Everyday relating appears to be dominated by six kinds of talk events: gossip, making plans, joking around, catching up, small talk, and recapping the day's events. The taxonomy of speech events appears to be organized along three dimensions: formal/goal-directed, important/deep/involving, and positive valence. Preliminary evidence suggests how different types of personal relationships are constituted in different speech events.

Self-esteem and "if…then" contingencies of interpersonal acceptance.

Abstract: The degree to which an individual perceives interpersonal acceptance as being contingent on successes and failures, versus relatively unconditional, is an important factor in the social construction of self-esteem. The authors used a lexical-decision task to examine people's "if. . . then" expectancies. On each trial, participants were shown a success or failure context word and then they made a word-nonword judgment on a second letter string, which sometimes was a target word relating to interpersonal outcomes. For low-self-esteem participants, success and failure contexts facilitated the processing of acceptance and rejection target words, respectively, revealing associations between performance and social outcomes. Study 2 ruled out a simple valence-congruency explanation. Study 3 demonstrated that the reaction-time pattern was stronger for people who had recently been primed with a highly contingent relationship, as opposed to one based more on unconditional acceptance. These results contribute to a social-cognitive formulation of the role of relational schemas in the social construction of self-esteem.

The Communication Patterns Questionnaire: The reliability and validity of a constructive communication subscale.

Abstract: This study provides evidence for the reliability and validity of a 7-item constructive communication subscale of the Communication Patterns Questionnaire (CPQ-CC, Christensen & Sullaway, 1984). Seventy married couples completed the CPQ and participated in videotaped problemsolving discussions. The constructiveness of spouses' behavior during the videotaped problem-solving discussions was rated by trained observers. The CPQ-CC had high internal consistency and moderately high agreement between spouses. The CPQ-CC also was strongly associated with observer ratings of the spouses' constructiveness during videotaped problem-solving discussions. Finally, the CPQ-CC was strongly associated with spouses' self-reported marital adjustment. These data support the reliability and validity of this brief self-report measure of constructive communication. There is now a clear recognition of the central role of communication in marriage. Abundant research demonstrates that the quality of a couple's communication is associated with their marital adjustment. This is particularly true of communication during times of conflict. There is also evidence that certain aspects of conflict communication predict longitudinal changes in relationship adjustment (Bradbury & Karney, 1993; Heavey, Christensen, & Malamuth, 1995). Both global and mircoanalytic coding systems have been developed to characterize the nature of marital conflict behavior (see Markman & Notarius, 1987). However, using these observational systems is extremely time consuming and costly. Thus, there is a need for measures of conflict communication that are easier to employ. Despite this, there are few self-report measures of conflict communication with demonstrated reliability and validity. One measure is the Communication Patterns Questionnaire (CPQ, Christensen & Sullaway, 1984). The CPQ is a 35-item self-report measure that addresses spouses' behavior during three stages of conflict: (a) when some problem in the relationship arises, (b) during a discussion of a relationship problem, and (c) after a discussion of a relationship problem. Christensen (1988) presented data concerning the reliability and validity of three subscales of the CPQ: demand/withdraw communication, demand/withdraw roles, and mutual constructive communication. He demonstrated that there was relatively high agreement between partners' independent reports for these three subscales (r's above .70). He also found that the mutual constructive communication and demand/withdraw communication subscales were significantly related to marital adjustment in the expected direction. Christensen and Shenk (1991) examined three similar CPQ subscales in a later study. The subscales used in their study were mutual constructive communication, mutual avoidance, and demand/withdraw communication. The study compared three groups: nondistressed married couples, married couples beginning treatment for marital distress, and separated or divorcing couples. The mutual constructive communication subscale differentiated among all three groups, whereas the mutual avoidance and the demand/ withdraw communication subscales only differentiated the nondistressed couples from the other two groups. Noller and White (1990) also addressed the validity of the CPQ. They divided married couples into categories of high, medium, and low marital adjustment. They found that 27 of the 35 items significantly discriminated between couples of low and high marital adjustment. They also developed four subscales based on a factor analysis. All four of the subscales, coercion, mutuality, post-conflict distress, and destructive processes, discriminated between the high and low marital adjustment groups. Thus, there is some evidence for the reliability of CPQ subscales and considerable evidence for the discriminant validity of various subscales. However, there have not been any studies comparing couples' reports of communication behavior on the CPQ with observer ratings of their behavior during problem solving. …

Managing the Emotions of Others

Abstract: Although research has focused on how individuals manage their own emotions, little attention has been paid to how individuals manage the emotions of other people. Here, I describe several techniques of interpersonal emotion-management, drawing from observations of a psychodrama-based encounter group which deliberately manipulated its members' feelings. Analysis reveals a number of strategies (e.g., group enactments, provocations, comforting) which, when used sequentially, produced first emotional loss of control in the individual and then positive emotion. Group solidarity was sometimes affected by these interpersonal emotion-management techniques as well. Some techniques may be similar to those used in military training and cult group recruitment, although further research attention is needed in these arenas. Other settings in which members play upon the emotions of others should be examined to identify other interpersonal techniques and the sequencing of strategies which produce desired individual and group outcomes.

Talking with strangers: A study of bilingual children's communicative competence

Abstract: An important component of the communicative competence of proficient bilinguals is the ability to use each of their languages differentially and appropriately according to relevant characteristics of the interlocutors and communicative situations. The research reported here examined the communicative competence of four young children (average age of 2;2, average MLU of 1·56) who were acquiring English and French simultaneously in the home. We observed the ways these children used their languages with monolingual strangers and with their bilingual parents. Specifically, the children's use of English-only, French-only, and mixed (English and French) utterances with the strangers during naturalistic play situations was compared with patterns of use with their parents, also during play sessions. We found that all of the children made some accommodations that could be linked to the monolingualism of the stranger; some of the children were more accommodating than others. The results are discussed in terms of young bilingual children's ability to modify their language on-line in response to the particular language characteristics of their interlocutors.

The Peer Relations of Preschool Children with Communication Disorders

Abstract: The peer-related social interactions of preschool-age children with communication disorders were compared to those of normally developing chronological age-mates. All children were previously unacquainted with one another and participated in a series of short-term play groups. Differences between the 2 groups emerged primarily in terms of overall social activity, as children with communication disorders engaged in fewer positive social interactions and conversed with peers less often during non-play activities. Children with communication disorders also were less successful in their social bids and appeared to be less directive with their peers. However, both groups of children exhibited similar patterns of socially competent interactions including the ability to sustain play (group play), to minimize conflict, to join others in ongoing activities, and to respond appropriately to the social bids of others. Based on peer sociometric ratings, both groups of children were equally accepted. These general patterns of similarities and differences were found in settings in which play groups consisted of all children with communication disorders (specialized settings) as well as in settings in which the play groups included both children with communication disorders and normally developing children (mainstreamed settings). However, even during the relatively brief acquaintanceship process, an analysis of peer preference patterns revealed that children with communication disorders in mainstreamed settings were less socially integrated in the play groups than normally developing children. The potential for additional difficulties in peer interactions for children with communication disorders when children become more familiar with one another and play becomes more intricate was discussed in light of interaction patterns formed during the short-term play groups.

Experience Sampling Method Applications to Communication Research Questions.

Abstract: The Experience Sampling Method (ESM) is a quasi-naturalistic method that involves signaling research subjects at random times throughout the day, often for a week or longer, and asking them to report on the nature and quality of their experience. The method has been applied to an increasing number of research problems in medicine, the social sciences, and communication. In this essay, the authors, who have developed the methodology over the past 20 years, reflect on some of the methods applications within communication studies. The ESM is contrasted with traditional questionnaire and diary methods, and its value in mapping behavior's ecological context and the nature of human experience is assessed. The authors suggest how the method can be applied to research problems in organizational settings, such as work and schools; with regard to mass and mediated communication; and to interpersonal, familial, and marital communication topics

Sexual Communication in Interpersonal Contexts: A Script-Based Approach

Abstract: Sexual communication is the means by which individuals come to select potential partners for sexual relations, and through which the meanings, functions, and effects of sexual relations are negotiated. Most cultures, relationships, and individuals develop standard expectancies and practices through which sexual relations are initiated and completed. These standard expectancies and practices can be viewed as scripts that identify some degree of the content, sequence, and boundaries of appropriate behavior for pursuing, negotiating, and enacting the sexual act. This chapter reviews the research relevant to sexual scripts as well as their descriptive and explanatory value in depicting communication and sexual relations. Scripts are shown to reveal both competent and incompetent influences in the unfolding of sexual interactions.