Showing papers on "Interpersonal relationship published in 1991"

Attachment styles among young adults: a test of a four-category model

Abstract: A new 4-group model of attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. Four prototypic attachment patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (positive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative). In Study 1, an interview was developed to yield continuous and categorical ratings of the 4 attachment styles. Intercorrelations of the attachment ratings were consistent with the proposed model. Attachment ratings were validated by self-report measures of self-concept and interpersonal functioning. Each style was associated with a distinct profile of interpersonal problems, according to both self- and friend-reports. In Study 2, attachment styles within the family of origin and with peers were assessed independently. Results of Study 1 were replicated. The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings.

Childhood Experience, Interpersonal Development, and Reproductive Strategy: An Evolutionary Theory of Socialization.

Abstract: The concept of "reproductive strategy" drawn from the field of behavioral ecology is applied to the study of childhood experience and interpersonal development in order to develop an evolutionary theory of socialization. The theory is presented in terms of 2 divergent development pathways considered to promote reproductive success in the contexts in which they have arisen. One is characterized, in childhood, by a stressful rearing environment and the development of insecure attachments to parents and subsequent behavior problems; in adolescence by early pubertal development and precocious sexuality; and, in adulthood, by unstable pair bonds and limited investment in child rearing, whereas the other is characterized by the opposite. The relation between this theory and prevailing theories of socialization, specifically, attachment, social-learning, and discrete-emotions theory, is considered and research consistent with our evolutionary theory is reviewed. Finally, directions for future research are discussed.

Young Children's Understanding of Other People's Feelings and Beliefs: Individual Differences and Their Antecedents

Abstract: Individual differences in young children's understanding of others' feelings and in their ability to explain human action in terms of beliefs, and the earlier correlates of these differences, were studied with 50 children observed at home with mother and sibling at 33 months, then tested at 40 months on affective-labeling, perspective-taking, and false-belief tasks. Individual differences in social understanding were marked; a third of the children offered explanations of actions in terms of false belief, though few predicted actions on the basis of beliefs. These differences were associated with participation in family discourse about feelings and causality 7 months earlier, verbal fluency of mother and child, and cooperative interaction with the sibling. Differences in understanding feelings were also associated with the discourse measures, the quality of mother-sibling interaction, SES, and gender, with girls more successful than boys. The results support the view that discourse about the social world may in part mediate the key conceptual advances reflected in the social cognition tasks; interaction between child and sibling and the relationships between other family members are also implicated in the growth of social understanding.

Relations between social competence and academic achievement in early adolescence

Abstract: Relations between academic performance and 3 aspects of social competence--socially responsible behavior, sociometric status, and self-regulatory processes (goal setting, interpersonal trust, and problem-solving styles)--were studied. Based on a sample of 423 12- and 13-year-old students, correlational findings indicate that each aspect of social competence is related significantly to students' grades. Results from multiple regression analyses suggest that when accounting for students' IQ, sex, ethnicity, school absence, and family structure, socially responsible behavior mediates almost entirely the relations between students' grades and the other 2 aspects of social competence. Socially responsible behavior and peer status appear to be related by way of their joint association with goals to be socially responsible, interpersonal trust, and problem-solving styles. Similarly, relations between socially responsible behavior and the background variables are explained by joint relations with the self-regulatory processes. The social nature of learning and the role of self-regulation in both interpersonal and behavioral aspects of social competence are discussed.

General and relationship-based perceptions of social support: are two constructs better than one?

Abstract: Two hypotheses derived from a theory of perceived social support were investigated: (a) relationship-based perceptions of social support are distinct from general perceptions of support, and (b) measures of each construct contribute uniquely to the prediction of loneliness. Ninety-four male and 116 female undergraduates completed measures of loneliness and general perceived social support and the Quality of Relationships Inventory, a new instrument to assess relationship-based perceptions of social support, conflict, and depth in specific relationships. General and relationship-based perceptions of social support were found to be related, but empirically distinct, constructs. Relationship-based perceptions of support and conflict from mothers and friends each added to the prediction of loneliness after considering the contribution of general perceived social support. Implications of these findings for understanding the perceived social support construct are discussed.

Attachment styles and patterns of self-disclosure.

Abstract: In 3 studies, 352 undergraduate Israeli students were classified into secure, avoidant, and ambivalent attachment groups, and their differences in traitlike measures of self-disclosure willingness and flexibility and in disclosure reciprocity and liking of hypothetical or real partners were assessed. Findings indicated that both secure and ambivalent people showed more self-disclosure than avoidant people. Findings also yielded that secure and ambivalent people disclosed more information to, felt better interacting with, and were more attracted to a high discloser partner than a low discloser partner. In contrast, avoidant people's self-disclosure and liking were not affected by the partner's disclosure. Secure people showed more disclosure flexibility and topical reciprocity than ambivalent and avoidant people. Findings are discussed in terms of the interaction goals of attachment groups. Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969,1973,1980) explains individual differences in the way infants regulate inner distress and relate to others. Recently, Hazan and Shaver (1987) extended attachment theory from research on parent-child interaction to the study of adult interpersonal relationships. In the current study, we continue Hazan and Shaver's line of research and examine the role that attachment styles play in the way adults disclose themselves to others. In adults, self-disclosure is critical in determining the outcome of interpersonal relationships (i£., Berg & Derlega, 1987) and may be associated with a person's attachment style.

Interpersonal Relations In Nursing: A Conceptual Frame of Reference for Psychodynamic Nursing

Abstract: Part 1 Phases and roles in nursing situations: a definition of nursing phases of nurse-patient relationships roles in nursing. Part 2 Influences in nursing situations: human needs interferences to achievement of goals opposing goals unexplained discomfort. Part 3 Psychological tasks: learning to count on others learning to delay satisfaction identifying oneself developing skills in participation. Part 4 Methods for studying nursing as an interpersonal process: observation, communication and recording.

Attachment Styles Among Young Adults

Abstract: A new 4-group model of attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. Four prototypic attachment patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (positive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative). In Study l, an interview was developed to yield continuous and categorical ratings of the 4 attachment styles. Intercorrelations the attachment ratings were consistent with the proposed model. Attachment ratings were validated by self-report measures of self-concept and interpersonal functioning. Each style was associated with a distinct profile of interpersonal problems, according to both self- and friend-reports. In Study 2, attachment styles within the family of origin and with peers were assessed independently. Results of Study I were replicated. The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings. This article describes a new model of attachment styles in adulthood. Drawing on the theory of Bowlby (1973, 1980, 1982a), two types of internal working models are postulatedan internal model of the self and an internal model of others. Each internal model can be dichotomized as positive or negative to yield four theoretical attachment styles. This article summarizes the relevant childhood attachment literature, reviews recent work on adult attachment, describes the new model, and then presents two empirical studies designed to validate the proposed model.

Some Evident Truths About Conversations in Everyday Relationships All Communications Are Not Created Equal

Abstract: This article presents a program of studies that map out daily conversations and so establish a geography of everyday communication. A new method (the Iowa Communication Record) is offered to extend research using diary methods and focus the researcher on communication in daily life. Three studies collectively show (a) consistent sex differences in the quality and nature of conversations across different types of relationships, (b) a consistent rank ordering of relationship types that differs from that intuitively included in previous models of relationship formation, and (c) a consistent difference between conversations held on different days of the week, with Wednesdays associated with greater degrees of conflictive communication. Self-disclosure is much less frequent in everyday life than assumed on the basis of laboratory work, and the predominant form of communication in intimate relationships is not only nonintimate but not simply distinguishable from communication in other relationship types. Communication quality distinguishes female from male partners, suggesting that previous findings on preference for female partners are truly founded in communication variables, which have previously been underrated. The article shows that closer attention must in future be paid to communicative variations created by daily events and circumstances, and the role of routine communication in daily life must be explored in future studies of social participation.

Against the theory of ‘Theory of Mind’

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to argue against the view that young children develop a ‘theory’ that people have minds, and to suggest reasons why children's concepts of the mind and of mental states are not adequately characterized as ‘theoretical’ in nature. I propose that what children acquire is knowledge of persons with minds, and that they do so through experience of interpersonal relations. I emphasize that infants' capacity for personal relatedness, the psychological bedrock for their understanding of persons, is partly constituted by innately determined perceptual-affective sensibilities towards the bodily appearances and behaviour of others. It is likely that children come to make inferences in the course of enriching and systematizing their concepts of mind, but this does not justify the view that ‘mental states’ are hypothetical constructs.

The discourses of intimacy: adding a social constructionist and feminist view.

Abstract: Though most people desire intimacy in their primary relationships, it is more elusive than not. I argue that people's assumptions about intimacy interfere with their creation of it. Using a social constructionist and feminist perspective, two prevailing discourses of intimacy that shape our ideas about intimacy are identified and critiqued. Both tend to direct attention away from an assessment of particular interactions to a global assessment of the capacity of an individual or a relationship to provide intimacy. An alternative is proposed in which intimacy is conceptualized as built up from single intimate or non-intimate interactions that can produce a variety of experiences, including connection and domination. My critique of the two discourses of intimacy rests fundamentally on the belief that they obscure crucial distinctions that a discourse of intimacy as meaning-making would reveal, in particular, that there are politics nestled in the heart of intimacy.

Interpersonal Relations as a Context For the Effects of Appraisal Interviews on Performance and Satisfaction: A Longitudinal Study

Abstract: The field study reported here examined the effect of interpersonal relations between supervisors and subordinates on the content and efficacy of performance appraisal reviews. One to two months aft...

Participation in Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Groups: A Theoretical Integration

Abstract: This article presents a theoretical formulation that integrates, within the framework of expectation states theory, theories of the emergence of power-and-prestige orders in status-heterogeneous an...

Work Experiences and Family Interaction Processes: The Long Reach of the Job?

Abstract: Until recently little theoretical or empirical attention has focused on the ways in which socially structured experiences in the workplace affect the interactions that occur within families This review considers the many levels at which family interaction is currently being studied, presents arguments regarding expected relationships between aspects of workplace experiences and spousal and parent-child interaction, and summarizes the relatively small body of empirical research that links occupation and family interaction It emphasizes the extent to which emotional consequences of work mediate the effect of workplace conditions on family interaction The chapter reviews evidence suggesting that a variety of workplace conditions—restriction of opportunity to exercise self-direction, work overload, poor quality of interpersonal relations on the job, low opportunity for cooperative problemsolving, job insecurities, job loss, and low earnings—have emotional repercussions that have negative implications for f

Difficulties of overseas students in social and academic situations

Abstract: It is generally believed that overseas students have more difficulty than host nationals in dealing with a wide range of social and academic situations. In the first study, 105 Asian students, 105 urban Australian students and 112 rural Australian students completed structured questionnaires, which asked them about the level of difficulty experienced in dealing With everyday social situations in Australia and their methods of coping with these problems. Asian students had more difficulty in dealing with situations related to close interpersonal relationship. In dealing with people of different status and in establishing friendships. Australian students attending university from country areas shared many of these difficulties, although to a lesser extent. In coping with these problems, Asian students engaged in information-seeking strategies more than host nationals. In Study 2, 101 Australian and 101 ethnic Chinese students responded to four vignettes about academic situations. Chinese students r...

Attachment style and the structure of romantic love

Abstract: Three studies (N = 337) explored adult attachment processes. Studies 1 and 2 examined differences between secure, avoidant and ambivalent people in the concept of romantic love, and Study 3 examined differences between the three groups in actual experiences in ongoing love relationships. Study 3 explored relationships from the point of view of both partners, and examined differences among attachment groups in perceptions of both actual and ideal relationships. Findings indicated that secure people put more emphasis on intimacy than avoidant and ambivalent people, and that their relationships were characterized by high intimacy and congruence of real-ideal and self-partner loves. The romantic relationship of ambivalent people was characterized by their failure to realize their desire for a warm and secure love. Avoidant people experienced less intimacy than secure people, but more commitment than ambivalent people in their relationships. They were found to underestimate partners' love and to want less intense love than secure and ambivalent people.

Making people feel guilty in conversations: Techniques and correlates.

Abstract: Communication plays an important role in eliciting and shaping people's emotions. Yet surprisingly little empirical or conceptual work has explored how social interaction encourages or discourages various emotions. This article summarizes a series of four studies which examined how people, in conversations, go about generating one emotion—that of guilt—in others. In the first study, a typology of 12 guilt moves was inductively devised. The most common ways of making another feel guilty were: reminding the other of his or her obligation to a relationship, listing sacrifices one has made for the other, reminding the other of his or her role responsibilities, comparing the other to someone else, and questioning the other. The primary reason for using guilt in conversations was persuasion. In the second study, the typology's generalizability was confirmed. Findings also revealed that the likelihood of using guilt in conversations increases with greater relationship intimacy and that people believe others are more likely to use guilt than themselves. The 12 techniques for guilt elicitation were examined in the third study for their independence and dimensionality via multidimensional scaling. The results suggest three underlying dimensions (self-nonself, acquiescence-restrictiveness, and commission-omission) and six potential clusters. The final study conceptualized guilt elicitation and sensitivity as individual differences. A brief, multifactor scale of individuals’ tendency to use guilt, to use it with ease, and to be susceptible to guilt moves was developed. The three dimensions correlated significantly with a number of communication-focused personality variables.

More than relationship: Chinese interaction and the principle of kuan‐hsi

Abstract: Through an interpretive analysis of interviews of Chinese in Taiwan, it is demonstrated that the principle of kuan‐hsi (relations) undergirds the functional aspects of Chinese interpersonal relationships. Originally based on the teachings of Confucian philosophy, and grounded in the notion of the family as microcosm of the larger society, kuan‐hsi has evolved into a social resource in a sense somewhat at odds with the Confucian ideal, that is, more as an interpersonal resource in Chinese society. Findings of the study help to reevaluate the commonly held perceptions that Chinese are collective, concerned with social harmony over the individual, and indirect in their communication.

Key Interpersonal Relationships of Next-Generation Family Members in Family Firms

Abstract: Family firms of all sizes play an important role in our society. They account for 50 percent of the nation's gross national product, as well as half of the nation's work force (Beckhard and Dyer 1983; Dyer 1986; Lansberg, Perrow, and Rogalsky 1988; Rosenblatt, Mik, Anderson, and Johnson 1985). Many of those employed are next-generation family members, also known as potential heirs; however, only limited research exists concerning the personal experience of these individuals within the family firm. While succession process are complex -- and involve many factors at the individual, relational, and organizational level of analysis (Handler 1989)--this article focuses on two interpersonal relationships which are central to the next-generation family member's experience. They are the intergenerational relationship between current and next generation). Both relationships are critical because of their impact on succession processes and future strategic plans for the firm. Key themes related to each type of relationship emerged from the qualitative analysis of data from personal interviews conducted with 32 next-generation family members from 32 organizations. BACKGROUND Critical to the next-generation family member's experience of succession is the quality of his or her relationship with the firm's founder (first generation leader) or owner (second, third, fourth, or fifth generation leader). While theorists have suggested this relationship is important to the succession process (Lansberg 1986, Patrick 1985, Stempler 1988), there has been minimal investigation of its nature and evolution. For example, Patrick (1985) researched individual's perceptions of satisfaction and their working relationships with their fathers. Her findings suggest that "it is entirely possible to find working in the family business with father as boss to be a satisfying experience." On the other hand, Davis's study, which was limited to the relative life stages of father and son, indicated that the relationship was relatively harmonious when the father was age 50-59 and the son was age 23-32; but it was relatively problematic when the father was age 60-69 and the son was 34-40. Using quantitative analysis, weak support was obtained for the hypothesis that a problematic relationship between father and son would exist when the father was 41-45 and the son was 17-22 (Davis 1982). The intragenerational relationship between siblings (or other members of the same generation) also has received little attention. Stories on interpersonal conflict are reported in the popular press.(1) However, no established theory successfully describes sibling behavior in family firms. Friedman (1989) attempted to apply conflict management theories to siblings in family firms. He suggests that rivalry is common among siblings, and the important question is how to manage it in the family firm. In addition, family business consultants have made suggestions for minimizing conflict. For example, one well-known specialist indicates that: In successful family businesses, both siblings and the parent-owner work to make sibling rivalry positive rather than negative in effect. They use such techniques as (1) determining a general and well-publicized philosophy to govern salaries and promotions, (2) assigning siblings separate positions within the company, and (3) developing a code of conduct that will govern siblings' behavior among themselves (Ward 1987). Following a discussion of methodology, the two key interpersonal relationships and their impact on succession will be considered in detail. METHODOLOGY Given that few systematic studies of succession in family firms have been done from the perspective of the next-generation family member, this research was designed to be exploratory, descriptive, and theory-generating. An intensive study of 32 next-generation family members from 32 organizations was conducted. …

Might versus Morality Explored: Motivational and Cognitive Bases for Social Motives

Abstract: Two conceptual models for social motives that were suggested by the results of W. B. Liebrand et al were examined. A goal model suggests that social motive differences reflect differences in interpersonal relations such that cooperators strive for good or moral interpersonal relations, whereas individualists strive for favorable power relationships. A schema model suggests that social motive differences reflect differences in cognitive knowledge structures. Prescriptive message content and partner strategy were manipulated to test these models. The goal model predicted that the prescriptive message would affect behavior most when it was congruent with the S's own goals. The schema model predicted that a message consistent with S's schema would prime related elements of that schema and amplify the usual response to one's partner's strategy. The results generally supported the schema model for cooperators; neither model was supported for individualists.

Early, Middle, and Late Adolescents' Perceptions of Their Relationships with Significant Others:

Abstract: A sample of 1,110 adolescents assessed nine aspects of their relationships with their mother, their father, their best same-sex friend, their most important sibling, and their most important teacher These aspects were admiration, affection, companionship, conflict, instrumental aid, intimacy, nurturance, reliable alliance, and satisfaction with the relationship Early adolescents (11 through 13 years of age) gave higher ratings than did middle (14 through 16years ofage) and late (17 through 19years ofage) adolescents for all relationships on most attributes Except for intimacy and nurturance, middle adolescents' ratings were higher than those of late adolescents but only for some relationships The observed trends are interpreted with respect to several social, socialcognitive, and cognitive changes taking place over the span of adolescence

Interpersonal Forgiveness Within the Helping Professions: An Attempt to Resolve Differences of Opinion

Abstract: Lakatos's (1978) philosophy of science is used as a guide for resolving published authors' differences of opinion about interpersonal forgiveness. We first review the ancient writings and current philosophical works regarding interpersonal forgiveness. With these ideas as a foundation we then critique six published papers on forgiveness, all of which have counseling implications. It is suggested that the works are not yet grounded in the foundational writings on forgiveness. The works, thus, may need some refinement in the area of definition, or proposed consequences for a forgiver, or in the processes used to bring about forgiveness in clients. A process model of interpersonal forgiveness then is described. Implications for the use of interpersonal forgiveness within counseling are drawn.

Conflict Resolution in Families With Adolescents

Abstract: Conflict resolution was examined in a 26-min seminaturalistic Family Social Interaction Task in 93 families with 5th through 12th graders. Families were consistent in their success in resolving conflicts but not in the particular solutions achieved. Adolescent concession declined from preadolescence to mid-adolescence, and conflicts were left unresolved more in families with boys than girls. Families compromised more over regulating the adolescent's behavior than over the adolescents' personal style (appearances, personality, health, and hygiene) and homework; conflicts over chores and interpersonal relations were more difficult to resolve than conflicts over personal style. In families with boys, compromise was predicted by less constraining interactions, whereas in families with girls, compromise was predicted by low ratings of the importance of the conflictual issues and fewer maternal conventional justifications for disputes. Findings are discussed in terms of research on adolescent development and fa...

Friendship Satisfaction and Gender: An Examination of Sex Differences in Contributors to Friendship Satisfaction

Abstract: The purpose of this research was to examine sex differences in characteristics associated with the core provisions of friendship, namely, intimacy, mutual assistance and companionship. Although sex differences in the magnitude of these provisions were expected, it was hypothesized that the characteristics would function in a similar manner to promote friendship satisfaction. An additional goal was to provide an empirical evaluation of the relative contribution of the three types of provisions to friendship satisfaction. In Study 1, trust in male and female friends (intimacy), orientation to assistance (communal and exchange) and companionship attributes of friends were examined as elements of the individual's cognitive conceptions of friendships. The females (n = 94) reported greater trust in males, a more communal orientation to assistance and greater friendship satisfaction. Regression analyses revealed that for both males (n = 80) and females, trust in male friends contributed to friendship satisfactio...